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AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 

AND  THE  DESIGN  OF 

FARM  STRUCTURES 


McGraw-Hill  BookCompairy^ 

ElGCtrical  World         TheEngineGiin^  and  Mining  Journal 
EngkieGring  Record  Engineering  Ngws 

KailwayA^e  Gazette  American  Machinist 

Signal  EngiriGGr  American Engjneei- 

Electric  Railway  Journal  Coal  Age 

Metallurgical  and  Chemical  Engineering  Power 


,i^ 


/VGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 

AND  THE  DESIGN  OF 

FARM  STRUCTUEES 


BY 
THOMAS  E.  FRENCH,  M.  E. 

PBOrESSOR   OP   ENGINEERING   DRAWING,   THE  OHIO   STATE   UNIVERSITT 
AUTHOR   OF   "engineering  DRAWING,"   "ESSENTIALS    OF   LETTERING,"    ETC. 


AND 

FREDERICK  W.  IVES,  B.  S.,  M.  E. 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR   OP   AGRICULTURAL   ENGINEERING,  THE  OHIO 
STATE   UNIVERSITT 


First  Edition 


McGRAW-HILL  BOOK  COMPANY,  Inc. 

239  WEST  39TH  STREET,  NEW  YORK 
6  BOUVERIE  STREET,  LONDON,  E.  C. 

1915 


Copyright,  1915,  by  the 
McGkaw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc. 


the;  mapi^e   press   tork  pa 


PREFACE 

As  the  title  implies,  this  book  is  intended  primarily  for  students  in  agriculture  and  agri- 
cultural engineering.  Engineering  Drawing  is  a  required  subject  in  practically  all  college 
agricultural  courses.  It  is  not  given  in  these  courses  with  the  idea  of  making  professional 
draftsmen,  but  is  regarded  as  an  important  subject  for  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  farm 
owner  or  manager,  by  giving  him  what  is  in  reality  a  new  language  in  which  to  express  and 
record  his  ideas. 

Aside  from  mechanics  and  builders,  there  is  no  class  to  whom  the  value  of  technical  draw- 
ing should  appeal  with  as  much  force  as  to  the  progressive  farmer.  His  literature  is  full  of 
illustrations  and  technical  sketches,  which  to  be  read  intelligently  require  a  knowledge  of 
technical  drawing.  Government  bulletins,  State  bulletins,  agricultural  periodicals  and 
books,  even  trade  and  machinery  catalogues,  cannot  be  fully  understood  without  this  knowl- 
edge. In  order  to  build  properly,  or  to  pass  upon  a  set  of  plans,  he  should  be  able  to  read 
architectural  drawings.  The  man  with  the  ability  to  draw  "  to  scale  "  can  plan  his  buildings, 
"take  off"  his  bill  of  materials,  estimate  the  costs,  and  mentally  see  the  finished  structure 
before  it  is  built.  He  can  make  sketches  of  broken  parts  of  machinery,  or  of  special  pieces 
which  he  wishes  to  have  made,  he  can-  make  a  layout  of  his  buildings  or  a  plat  of  his  farm. 
In  short,  he  has  an  asset  of  distinct'  advantage  and  value. 

This  book  is  a  text  book*  rather  than  a  "course  in  drawing."  The  principles  and  proc- 
esses involved  are  described  and  illustrated,  and  a  variety  of  problems  of  various  kinds  and 
of  progressive  difficulty  have  been  arranged,  with  outlines  for  a  considerable  number  of 
additional  ones,  not  only  giving  suggestions  to  the  farm  owner,  but  also  supplying  class 
material,  which  may  thus  be  varied  from  year  to  year.  Drawing  courses  vary  in  length, 
and  the  instructor  may  make  his  choice  from  these  numerous  problems  to  cover  the  different 
divisions  of  the  subject  matter  included  in  the  text. 

These  problems  have  been  selected  for  their  practical  value,  and  all  are  dependable  in 
design.     Many  are  from  work  designed  and  built  by  the  authors. 

The  freehand  method  of  introducing  projection  drawing  has  been  used  with  marked 
success  in  agricultural  classes. 

A  number  of  formulas,  tables,  etc.,  have  been  grouped  in  one  chapter,  to  give  in  con- 
venient form  information  necessary  in  designing  some  structures;  and  other  items  of  mis- 
cellaneous information  useful  in  drawing  and  designing  have  also  been  included.  In  the 
last  chapter  is  given  a  list  of  books  and  bulletins  on  allied  subjects. 

The  assistance  of  Mr.  C.  L.  Svensen  and  Mr.  W.  D.  Turnbull  is  gratefully  acknowledged. 

The  authors  will  be  glad  to  cooperate  with  teachers  using  the  book  as  a  text  book,  and 
to  suggest  or  furnish  supplementary  problems. 

*Some  of  the  material  in  it  has  been  condensed  from  the  larger  text  book  "A  Manual  of  Engineer- 
ing Drawing." 

Columbus,  "  •* 

August  10,  1915. 

T.  E.  F. 
F.  W.  I. 

330428 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/agriculturaldrawOOfrenrich 


CONTENTS 

Page 
Preface  v 

CHAPTER  I 

Introductory    1 

Importance  of  drawing — Different  kinds  of  drawing — Pictorial  drawings — Working  drawings 
— Topographical  drawing — Examples. 

CHAPTER  II 

Theory  and  Technique 6 

List  of  instruments  and  materials — Principles  of  orthographic  projection — Sketching — Draw- 
ing with  instruments — Alphabet  of  lines — Inking — ^Lettering. 

CHAPTER  III 

Working  Drawings 26 

Classes  of  working  drawings — Sectional  views — Turned  sections — Auxiliary  views — Use  of 
scale — Dimensioning,  Rules  for  dimensioning — Title — Bill  of  material — Checking — Conven- 
tional symbols — Fastenings — Bolts  and  screws — Pipe — Developed  surfaces — Method  of 
working — Sketching  from  the  object — Problems. 

CHAPTER  IV 

Farm  Structures 47 

Designing  —  Symbols  —  Plans  —  Elevations  —  Sections — Dimensions — Wood  construction — 
Framing,  the  timber  frame,  the  plank  frame,  joints  and  details  of  construction,  roofs,  fire  stop- 
ping and  rat  proofing — Concrete,  composition,  reinforcing,  forms,  a  concrete  water  tank — Brick, 
kinds,  symbols,  bonds — Stone — Stucco — Hollow  tile — Roofing  materials,  shingles,  slate,  tile, 
composition  roofing,  galvanized  roofing — Method  of  preparing  plans — The  dairy  barn,  require- 
ments, lighting,  ventilation,  space  required,  storage — Complete  plans  and  specifications  of  a 
dairy  barn,  bill  of  material,  estimate — The  horse  barn — The  general  purpose  barn — The  swine 
house — Dipping  vat — The  sheep  barn — The  poultry  house — Implement  sheds — Corn  cribs — 
Granaries — Ice  houses — Garages — Smoke  houses — The  dairy  house — The  silo — The  manure 
pit — The  septic  tank — Fences,  paddocks,  hurdles,  pens  and  gates — The  farm  house  and  its 
requirements — Plans  of  a  farm  house — Problems. 

CHAPTER  V 

Maps  and  Topographical  Drawing 90 

Instruments — Plats — A  farm  survey — Farm  office  map — Topographical  drawing — Contours — 
Quadrangle    sheets — ^Landscape    maps — Profiles — Problems. 

CHAPTER  VI 

Pictorial  Drawing • .    .    .    .   100 

Uses — Isometric  drawing — Oblique  drawing — Cabinet  drawing — Sketching — Problems. 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VII 

Page 

Construction  Data 112 

Stock  and  commercial  sizes,  lumber,  mill  work,  sash,  glass,  sheet  metal,  wire,  pipe,  rope,  drain 
tUe,  slate,  metal  roofing,  ready  roofing — Weight  of  roofing — Weights  of  materials — Space  re- 
quired for  storage — Space  required  for  farm  implements — Ration  for  beef  feeders — Table  for 
the  selection  of  native  woods — Strength  of  timbers,  tables — Concrete,  table  of  proportions 
for  different  uses — Silos  and  silage,  table — Sunshine  table — Dairy  score  card — Kitchen  score 
card— Estimating,  cubic  estimates,  other  approximate  methods,  detailed  estimates,  taking 
off  quantities,  units  of  measurement,  present  prices — Heating,  lighting,  ventilation  and  sewage 
disposal — Blue  printing — Problems. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Selected  Bibliography      122 

Books  on  allied  subjects — Government  bulletins — State  Experiment  Station  and  Agricultural 
College  bulletins — Trade  publications. 

Index 125 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


CHAPTER  I 


INTRODUCTORY 


There  are  two  general  methods  of  describ- 
ing things,  one  by  using  words,  spoken  or 
written,  the  other  by  drawing  pictures. 
The  first  is  ordinary  language,  the  second 
method  is  often  called  the  universal  graphical 
language. 


picture  from  his  own  imagination;  and  the 
stronger  his  visualizing  power  the  fuller  and 
more  interesting  picture  does  he  have.  But 
probably  no  two  persons  reading  the  same 
story  ever  see  exactly  the  same  picture.  In 
fact  some  very  able  people  are  almost  lacking 


^o^  -tiai^'^^sr 


Fig.  1. — A  pen-and-ink  perspective  drawing. 


Some  writers  are  so  skillful  in  their  use  of 
words,  that  when  describing  some  scene  or 
event  their  writing  is  called  a  word-picture, 
and  the  interested  reader  feels  in  imagination 
that  he  can  see  it  all  vividly  before  him. 
But  he  has  simply  taken  the  author's  sug- 
gestions and  has  filled  in  the  details  of  the 


in  the  power  of  mental  imagery,  and  in 
reading  a  story  do  not  construct  any  imagi- 
native picture  at  all. 

It  would  evidently  be  almost  impossible  to 
describe  the  appearance  and  construction  of 
a  proposed  new  machine  or  building  so  that 
it   could   be  built,   by  using  words   alone. 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Fig.  2. — An  isometric  drawing. 


aA2.A 


FRAME — 


Fig.  3. — An  isometric  illustration. 


INTRODUCTORY 


Thus  in  technical  description,  where  nothing 
can  be  left  to  the  imagination,  the  second 
method,  drawing,  becomes  by  far  the  more 
important.  The  shape  of  even  the  simplest 
object  can  be  explained  much  more  accu- 
rately and  quickly  by  a  drawing  than  by 
verbal  description. 

But  this  descriptive  drawing  may  not  be 
simply  like  an  artist's  picture,  because  the 
artist's  method  of  drawing  is  again  only 
suggestive,  and  while  it  shows  what  the 
object  looks  like,  it  leaves  much  to  be  sup- 
plied by  the  observer's  imagination.  Tech- 
nical drawing  must  describe  accurately  every 


able  to  think  in  space,  and  an  increasing 
power  to  represent  and  explain  what  he  has 
in  his  mind. 

Different  Kinds  of  Drawing 

There  are  several  different  kinds  of  draw- 
ing used  in  technical  work.  They  may  be 
divided  broadly  into  pictorial  drawings  and 
working  drawings. 

Pictorial  Drawings. 

Drawing  an  object  as  it  actually  appears 
to  the  eye  is  called  perspective  drawing. 
This  is  used  by  architects  in  showing  the 


'Z  No.  10  Wood  Screws 


Fig.  4. — A  working  drawing  and  a  picture. 


detail  of  the  structure.  (The  ordinary  con- 
tractor has  no  imagination  that  will  supply 
something  not  shown  on  the  drawings,  with- 
out being  paid  an  "extra"  for  it!) 

Thus  this  method  of  describing  objects  by 
lines  becomes  a  real  language,  to  be  studied 
in  the  same  way  as  any  other  language.  Its 
thorough  mastery  is  necessary  for  the  pro- 
fessional engineer  and  architect,  but  every- 
one who  has  anything  to  do  with  building  or 
machinery  should  know  the  elementary 
principles  of  the  subject,  that  is,  should  be 
able  to  read  and  write  in  the  language. 

It  is  not  a  complicated  nor  mysterious 
subject,  but  is  very  simple  in  its  principles, 
and  the  ability  to  learn  it  does  not  depend 
upon  any  natural  talent.  As  one  studies  it 
he  feels  a  growing  consciousness  of  being 


appearance  of  a  proposed  building  or  group 
of  buildings.  Artists  and  illustrators  draw 
in  perspective  directly  from  the  object  or 
landscape  before  them.  The  architect  in 
drawing  a  building  not  yet  erected,  assumes 
the  observer  to  be  standing  at  a  certain 
point  and  works  out  the  perspective  from 
the  plans  by  somewhat  complicated  methods, 
finishing  it  (or  rendering  as  he  calls  it)  in 
water  color,  pen  and  ink  or  pencil.  This 
drawing  shows  the  building  just  as  a  photo- 
graph or  sketch  taken  from  the  same  point 
would  do;  but  as  it  cannot  be  measured,  the 
drawing  is  of  no  value  to  build  from.  Per- 
spective drawing  is,  moreover,  too  involved 
and  difficult  to  be  of  general  use.  Fig.  1 
illustrates  the  appearance  of  a  perspective 
drawing  rendered  in  pen  and  ink. 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


N.  4°-0  e.   2 149.  IB 


Fig.  5. — A  topographical  drawing. 


INTRODUCTORY 


A  simpler  way  of  making  pictorial  draw- 
ings suitable  for  some  purposes  is  by  iso- 
metric or  oblique  drawing.  These  systems 
are  very  useful  in  showing  details  of  con- 
struction, and  are  also  used  very  commonly 
for  illustrations  in  bulletins  and  books. 
They  are  not  difficult  to  make,  and  the 
method  is  fully  explained  in  Chapter  VI. 
Fig.  2  is  a  typical  isometric  illustration  from 
a  Government  bulletin,  and  Fig.  3  a  more 
complicated  example  as  used  in  an  imple- 
ment catalogue,  and  which  shows  the  con- 
struction more  clearly  than  any  other  kind 
of  drawing  would  do. 

Working  Drawings. 

A  working  drawing  is  a  drawing  that  gives 
all  the  information  for  the  complete  con- 
struction of  the  object  represented. — Thus 
the  essential  difference  between  a  pictorial 
drawing  and  a  working  drawing  is  that  the 
pictorial  drawing  shows  the  object  as  it 
appears,  while  the  working  drawing  must 
show  it  as  it  actually  is,  giving  the  exact 
shape  and  dimensions  of  every  part.  This 
is  done  by  making  different  "views"  of  the 
object,  in  a  system  known  technically  as 
"orthographic  projection,"  the  principles  of 


which  are  explained  in  the  next  chapter. 
This  is  the  basis  of  all  industrial  drawing, 
mechanical  and  architectural,  and  may  be 
called  the  grammar  of  this  graphical  language. 
Architectural  drawings  are  working  draw- 
ings, as  they  are  used  to  build  from.  The 
architect  makes  perspective  drawings,  pre- 
viously referred  to,  principally  to  show  his 
clients,  who  are  unable  to  read  the  working 
drawings,  what  the  building  is  going  to  look 
like.  Fig.  4  illustrates  a  pictorial  drawing 
and  a  working  drawing  of  a  simple  object. 

Topographic  Drawing. 

Still  another  kind  of  drawing,  with  the 
rudiments  of  which  we  should  be  familiar,  is 
topographic  drawing.  This  includes  the 
drawing  of  maps  and  plats,  showing  the 
method  of  representing  land  and  water 
features,  and  is  the  kind  of  drawing  used  in 
connection  with  surveying.  Its  particular 
value  and  interest  to  the  farmer  is  explained 
in  Chapter  V. 

Fig.  5  is  a  topographic  drawing  of  a  farm 
and  farmstead,  and  shows  not  only  the 
location  of  the  various  features,  as  buildings, 
fields,  ditches,  etc.,  but  also  the  contour,  or 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  lay  of  the  land. 


CHAPTER  II 


THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 


Of  the  several  kinds  of  drawing  just  re- 
ferred to,  each  has  a  particular  use.  For 
constructive  drawings,  that  is  for  drawings 
of  things  which  are  to  be  made,  the  system 
known  as  orthographic  projection  is  used 
almost  exclusively,  as  being  the  method  best 
adapted  for  showing  an  object  exactly  as  it 
is  to  be.  As  it  does  not  show  the  object  as 
it  will  appear  to  the  eye,  one  must  be  trained 
in  reading  it,  and  in  exercising  the  visualiz- 
ing power  of  the  imagination  to  see  the 
object  from  its  projections. 

It  is  our  purpose  in  this  chapter  to  study 
the  principles  of  this  system  and  the  tech- 
nique of  its  execution. 

Constructive  drawing  is  sometimes  done 
freehand,  when  it  is  called  "technical  sketch- 
ing," but  for  designing  structures  and  making 
accurate  working  drawings  it  is  necessary  to 
use  instruments  and  work  to  dimensions. 
Preliminary  studies  and  schemes  for  new 
structures  or  machines  are  usually  sketched 
first  freehand,  and  often  the  final  working 
drawing  of  a  simple  object  wanted  is  made 
without  instruments.  Our  first  work  in 
studying  the  principles  will  be  done  as  free- 
hand sketching,  after  which  the  technique 
of  instrumental  or  mechanical  drawing  will 
be  taken  up. 

Instruments 

For  instrumental  drawing  an  outfit  of 
drawing  materials  must  be  at  hand.  Profes- 
sional draftsmen  use  expensive,  high-grade 
instruments.  Those  who  will  do  only  oc- 
casional drawing  can  get  along  with  a  com- 
paratively inexpensive  outfit. 


The  following  is  a  list  of  instruments  and 
materials  needed: 

1.  A  set  of  drawing  instruments,  con- 
taining a  6  inch  compass  with  pen, 
pencil  and  lengthening  bar,  a  pair  of 
dividers,  a  ruling  pen  and  a  bow  pen. 
A  bow  pencil  and  bow  spacer  are  de- 
sirable but  not  necessary  additions. 

2.  A  drawing  board  of  soft  pine,  cleated 
to  prevent  warping  (or  a  drawing 
table  with  pine  top). 

3.  A  T-square.  These  come  in  various 
lengths  and  grades.  For  the  work 
outlined  in  this  book  a  30"  blade  is 
long  enough. 

4.  A  45°  triangle  and  a  30°-60°  triangle. 
Transparent  amber  is  the  best. 

5.  An  architect's  scale,  either  one  tri- 
angular shape  or  two  flat  ones.  (An 
engineer's  scale  of  decimal  parts  is 
needed  in  map  work,  and  a  protractor 
should  also  be  at  hand.) 

6.  Thumb  tacks. 

7.  Drawing  pencils. 

8.  Waterproof  drawing  ink. 

9.  Eraser. 

10.  Sandpaper  pad  for  sharpening  pencils. 

11.  Drawing  paper.  Most  working  draw- 
ings are  made  on  buff  or  cream- 
colored  "detail  paper"  which  is  sold 
by  the  yard,  in  rolls,  and  are  after- 
wards traced  on  tracing  cloth  or 
tracing  paper. 

Orthographic  Projection 

Orthographic  projection  is  the  theoretical 
name  given  to  a  method  of  drawing  two  or 


THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 


more  views  of  an  object  in  order  to  show  the 
exact  shapes  of  its  parts  and  their  relation  to 
each  other.  It  means  practically  that  we 
draw  one  view  of  the  object  as  it  would 
appear  if  we  looked  directly  down  on  the 
top  of  it,  another  view  looking  straight  at 
the  front,  and  if  necessary,  a  third"  looking 
directly  at  the  end  or  side  of  the  object. 
Thus  if  we  were  asked  to  make  the  projec- 


FiG.  6. — Pictorial  view  of  block. 

tions  of  the  block  shown  in  pictorial  view  in 
Fig.  6,  we  would  have,  by  looking  straight 
down  at  it  from  the  top,  a  top  view  as 
shown  in  Fig.  7(a),  on  which  the  faces  A,  C 
and  E  would  show.  Looking  at  it  directly 
from  the  front  would  give  the  front  view  (h) , 
on  which  the  face  B  only  would  be  visible, 
while  on  the  side  view  (c)  the  faces  D  and  F 
only  would  show.     Evidently  the  width  of 


c 

A 

E 

(oj 

/-' 

<\ 

c-y 

B 

/^ 

o 


F 


Fig. 


7. — Three  views  of  block. 


(c) 


the  side  view  is  the  same  as  the  width  of  the 
top  view.  Similarly  the  lengths  of  the  front 
and  top  views  are  equal,  and  the  heights  of 
the  front  and  side  views  are  equal. 

These  three  views  describe  completely  the 
form  of  the  object.  In  combination  the  top 
view  is  always  placed  directly  above  the 
front  view,  and  the  side  view  directly  across 
from  the  front  view. 


Fig.  8  is  the  pictorial  view  of  a  bracket,  and 
Fig.  9  the  three  views  of  the  same  bracket. 
Study  and  compare  these  views. 

Explaining,  perhaps  more  accurately  and 
carefully,  the  theory  of  orthographic  pro- 


FiG.  8. — Pictorial  view  of  bracket. 

jection  is  that  the  object  (Fig.  10)  is  con- 
ceived to  be  surrounded  by  transparent 
planes  perpendicular  to  each  other  (as  if  it 
were  inside  of  a  box  with  glass  sides).  If 
lines  perpendicular  to  these  planes  be  ex- 
tended or  "projected"  to  them  from  every 




F 

'T 

Fig,  9. — Three  views  of  bracket. 

point  of  the  object,  the  resulting  figures  on 
the  planes  will  be  the  "projections  "  of  the 
object.  Fig.  11.  These  planes  are  then 
imagined  to  be  opened  up  into  one  surface, 
represented  by  the  drawing  paper  (as  if  the 


8 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


sides  of  the  glass  box  were  hinged,  and 
opened  out).  Thus  the  fiat  view  of  these 
opened  planes  would  be  like  Fig.  12,  and, 
leaving  off  the  outlines  of  the  edges,  and  the 
lines  of  the  hinges,  the  three  views  would 
appear  as  in  Fig.  13. 


This  shows  the  reason  for  the  rule  already 
given,  that  the  top  view  is  directly  above  the 
front  view,  and  the  side  view  directly  across 
from  the  front  view.  Notice  particularly 
that  on  the  side  view  the  front  of  the  object 
is  facing  the  front  view.  Sometimes  two 
side  views  are  necessary,  and  in  compara- 


FiG.  11.— The  "glass  box." 

tively  rare  cases  a  bottom  view  is  desirable 
(as  if  the  other  end  of  the  glass  box,  and  the 
bottom  of  it  were  opened  on  their  hinges 
until  flush  with  the  front). 

From  a  study  of  these  projections  the 
following  principles  will  be  noted. 


A  surface  parallel  to  a  plane  of  pro- 
jection is  shown  in  its  true  size;  as 
B  on  the  front  view  of  Fig.  7. 
A  surface  perpendicular  to  a  plane  of 
projection  is  projected  as  a   line;  as 


o 


o 


TXl: 


\2/ 


Fig.  12. — The  box  opened. 

faces  A,  C  and  E  on  the  same  view 
(Fig.  76). 
3.  A  surface  inclined  to  a  plane  of  pro- 
jection is  foreshortened;  as  face  C  on 
the  top  view  of  Fig.  7,  and  K  on  the 
side  view  of  Fig.  13. 


o 

A 

B 

o 

c 

1       1 

H      1 

k!    1 

6!       !      1                              1 

!       ! 

> 

\S/ 

/ 

A 

Fig.  13. — The  three  projections. 

Similarly — • 

4.  A   line   parallel  to   a   plane   of   pro- 
jection will  show  in  its  true  length. 

5.  A  line  perpendicular  to  a  plane  of 
projection  will  be  projected  as  a  point. 


THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 


9 


6.  An  inclined  line  will  have  a  projection 

shorter  than  its  true  length. 

As  a  general  rule  to  be  followed,  the  view 

showing  the  characteristic  contour  or  shape 

of  a  piece  should  be  drawn  first;  thus  in 

Figs.  6  and  8  the  front  view  would  be  the 


Fig.  14. — Sketching  a  vertical  line. 

first  one  to  be  made,  while  in  Fig.  21o  on 
page  13  the  top  view  would  be  drawn  first, 
to  advantage. 

In  architectural  drawing  the  top  view  is 
always  called  the  plan,  and  the  front  and 
side  views  the  front  elevation  and  side 
elevation  respectively. 


Fig.  Jo. — Sketching  a  horizontal  line. 

Sketching. 

Training  in  freehand  sketching  is  so  im- 
portant that  there  should  be  much  practice 
in  it.  Our  first  work  will  be  sketching  in 
orthographic  projection  from  pictorial  views 
and  models. 

An  H,  F,  or  No.  3  drawing  pencil  sharp- 
ened to  a  long  conical  point,  not  too  sharp,  a 
pencil  eraser,  to  be  used  sparingly,  and  paper, 
either  in  note    book,   pad,   or  single  sheet 


clipped  on  a  board,  are  all  the  materials 
needed.  Sometimes  coordinate  paper,  ruled 
in  faint  lines,  is  used. 

The  pencil  should  be  held  with  freedom, 
not  close  to  the  point,  vertical  lines  drawn 
downward.  Fig.  14,  and  horizontal  lines  from 
left  to  right.  Fig.  15. 

In  beginning  a  sketch,  after  studying  the 
object  until  the  views  are  clear,  mentally, 
always  start  with  center  lines  or  base  lines, 
and  remember  that  the  view  showing 
the  contour  or  characteristic  shape  should 


Fig.  16. 

be  drawn  first.  This  is  generally  the  view 
showing  circles  if  there  are  any.  Get  the 
main  dimensions  and  proportions  first, 
blocking  in  the  necessary  number  of  views  so 
that  they  will  fit  the  sheet. 

In  such  a  figure  as  Fig.  16  the  sketch  would 
be  started  by  drawing  a  vertical  center  line, 
on  which  would  be  spaced  the  principal 
points  of  the  front  and  top  views.  The  side 
view  would  then  be  blocked  in,  and  the 
sketch  at  this  stage  would  be  something  like 
Fig.  17.  The  holes  would  then  be  added  and 
the  outlines  brightened,  so  that  the  finished 
sketch  would  look  like  Fig.  18. 


10 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Figs.  19,  20  and  21  are  collections  of 
pictorial  views  of  various  familiar  objects, 
which  are  to  be  sketched  in  orthographic 
projection,  making  the  views  necessary  to 
describe  the  object  fully  and  clearly.  This 
is  primarily  for  practice  in  projection  but  is 
also  a  test  of  the  student's  judgment  in 
observing  and  recording  proportions. 


T 


Fig.  17. — First  stage  of  sketch. 

Drawing  with  Instruments. 

As  has  been  said,  instrumental  drawing  is 
necessary  in  all  accurate  work  in  designing 
and  drafting,  and  the  first  requirement  is 
the  ability  to  use  the  drawing  instruments 
correctly.  With  continued  practice  will 
come  a  facility  in  their  use  which  will  free 
the  mind  from  any  thought  of  the  means  of 
expression. 

Our  further  work  in  the  subject  will  be 
done  chiefly  with  instruments,  and  in  the 


exercises  given  in  this  chapter  careful  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to  the  explanations  and 
hints  on  the  methods  of  handling  the  differ- 
ent instruments.  It  is  very  easy  to  get  into 
bad  habits  in  using  the  instruments  unless 
good  form  be  observed  at  the  start.  These 
habits  once  formed  are  very  difficult  to 
overcome. 


m 


t 


Fig.  18. — Finished  sketch. 

Alphabet  of  Lines. 

As  the  basis  of  the  language  of  drawing  is 
the  line,  a  set  of  different  kinds  of  lines 
needed  may  properly  be  called  an  alphabet 
of  lines.  The  ones  in  general  use  are  given 
in  Fig.  22. 

The  weight  of  line  for  the  visible  outline 
will  vary  with  the  kind  of  drawing.  Archi- 
tectural and  structural  drawings  are  made 
with  a  line  not  heavier  than  shown  at  (1), 


THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 


11 


VK 


Fig.  19. — Problems  for  working  sketches. 


12 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


u 


1/     'I 


M 


/< 


Fig.  20. — Problems  for  working  sketches. 


THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 


13 


Fig.  21. — Problems  for  working  sketches. 


14 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


while  drawings  of  machine  parts  are  usually     Use  of  T  Square  and  Triangles. 
outUned  with  a  much  wider  line.  The  T  square  is  for  drawing  parallel  hori- 

Center  lines,   dimension  lines  and  cross     zontal  lines,  and  is  always  used  with  its  head 


1- 


// 


(1)  visible  outline 

(2)  invisible  outline 
-(3)  center  line 

(3a)  center  line  in  pencil 

(4)  dimension  line 

(5)  extension  line 

(6)  alternate  position 

(7)  line  of  motion 

(8)  cutting  plane 


-^]/^ 


^\/ty^  Wl^iM^^t     (9)  break  line 
-^ Y ']/v' (10)  limiting  break 


(11)  cross  hatching  line 


Fig.  22. — The  alphabet  of  lines. 


■£xfef)SK)n //he 


\Secfybn  //nes  (Cross  hakf7//^)      /^\ 


Fig.  23. — The  alphabet  illustrated. 


hatching     lines     should     be     clean     fine  against  the  leji  edge  of  the  drawing  board, 

uniform   lines.      Fig.   23   shows  these  and  The  triangles  are  used  against  the  T  square 

the     various    other    lines    as    used    on    a  for  drawing  vertical  lines  and  lines  at  30, 

drawing.  ^  45  and  60  degrees. 


THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 


15 


With  the  two  triangles  together,  lines  at 
15  degrees  and  75  degrees  may  be  drawn. 
Fig.  24  illustrates  these  combinations. 


edge  (the  paper  should  preferably  be  a  little 
larger  than  the  j&nished  drawing  is  to  be). 
Lay  the  scale  down  on  the  paper  close  to  the 


Fig.  24. — Use  of  triangles. 


The  detailed  construction  of  the  two 
following  sheets  is  given  to  illustrate  the 
method  of  procedure  in  making  a  drawing, 
and  the  use  of  some  of  the  instruments.  If 
these  drawings  are  made  following  the  in- 
structions carefully,  making  them  over  if 
necessary  untU  a  satisfactory  result  is  ob- 
tained, the  use  of  the  instruments  and  the 
method  of  laying  out  a  drawing  should  be 
sufficiently  familiar  to  the  beginner,  so  that 
succeeding  work  can  be  done  without  hesi- 
tation or  fault  in  execution. 

Sharpen  a  hard  pencil  (4H  or  6H)  to  a 
long  sharp  point,  cutting  away  the  wood  and 
pointing  the  lead  by  rubbing  it  on  the  sand- 
paper pad.  (For  straight  line  work  some 
prefer  a  fiat  wedge-shaped  point,  as  it  stays 
sharp  longer.)  Have  the  sand-paper  pad 
always  at  hand  and  keep  the  pencil  point 
sharp. 

Fasten  a  piece  of  paper  to  the  board, 
squaring  the  top  edge  with  the  T  square, 
and  putting  a  thumb  tack  in  each  corner, 
pushing  the  tacks  down  to  their  heads. 

Suppose  the  size  of  the  drawing  is  to  be 
12"  X  18"  with  a  border  line  M"  from  the 


Drawing  a  vertical  line. 


lower  edge  and  measure  18",  marking  the 
distances  with  the  pencil,  at  the  same  time 
marking  3^^"  for  the  border  line.     Always 


16 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


use  a  short  dash,  not  a  dot,  in  laying  off  a 
dimension.  At  the  left  edge  mark  12"  and 
y^"  border  line  points.  Through  these  four 
points  on  the  left  edge,  draw  horizontal  lines 
with  the  T  square,  and  through  the  points 


Fig.  26. — Setting  the  compass. 

on  the  lower  edge  draw  vertical  lines  with 
the  triangle  against  the  T  square  in  the 
position  illustrated  in  Big.  25.  Horizontal 
lines  should  always  be  drawn  from  left  to 
right,  and  vertical  lines  upward. 


Fig.  27. — Starting  the  circle. 

Use  of  the  Compasses. 

In  drawing  a  circle  the  radius  should  be 
measured  and  marked  on  the  center  line  and 
the  compass  adjusted  to  it  by  first  pinching 
the  instrument  open  with  the  thumb  and 
second  finger,  then  setting  the  needle  point 
(shoulder  point)  in  position  at  the  center  and 


adjusting  the  pencil  point  to  the  mark, 
using  one  hand  only  in  opening  and  closing 
the  compasses.  The  needle  point  may  be 
guided  to  the  center  with  the  little  finger  of 
the  left  hand,  Fig.  26.     When   the  lead  is 


Fig.  28. — Completing  the  circle. 

adjusted  to  pass  exactly  through  the  mark, 
the  hand  should  be  raised  to  the  handle  and 
the  circle  drawn  (clockwise)  in  one  sweep 
by  twirling  the  handle  with  the  thumb  and 
forefinger,   keeping  the  compasses  inclined 


Fig.  29. — Position  for  large  circle. 

slightly.  Fig.  27.  The  position  of  the  fingers 
after  completing  the  circle  is  shown  in  Fig. 
28.  Circles  up  to  perhaps  3  inches  in 
diameter  may  be  drawn  with  legs  straight 
but  for  larger  sizes  the  legs  are  bent  at  the 


THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 


17 


Fig.  30. — Use  of  lengthening  bar. 


joints 
paper, 
reach 


so  as  to  be  perpendicular  to  the 
Fig.  29.  Circles  too  large  for  the 
of     the    compass    are    drawn    with 


Fig.  31. — Setting  the  bow  pen. 

the  lengthening  bar  as  shown  in  Fig.  30. 
Small  circles,  particularly  when  there  are 
a  number  of  the  same  diameter,  are  made 


Fig.  32. — Correct  and  incorrect  tangents. 

with  the  bow-pen.  In  changing  the  set- 
ting, to  avoid  wear  and  final  stripping 
of  the  thread,   the  pressure  of  the  spring 


against  the  nut  should  be  relieved  by  holding 
the  points  in  the  left  hand  and  spinning  the 
nut  in  or  out  with  the  finger.  Small  adjust- 
ments are  made  with  one  hand,  with  the 
needle  point  in  position  on  the  paper.  Fig. 
31.  Notice  particularly,  in  drawing  tangent 
circles,  that  two  lines  are  tangent  to  each 
other  when  their  centers  are  tangent,  and 
not  when  the  lines  simply  touch  each  other; 
as  illustrated  in  enlarged  form  in  Fig.  32. 


Fig.  33. — Bisecting  a  line  with  dividers. 

Use  of  Dividers. 

The  dividers  are  used  for  transferring 
measurements  from  one  part  of  the  drawing 
to  another,  for  stepping  off  distances,  and  for 
dividing  lines  by  trial.  They  are  handled 
in  the  same  way  as  the  compasses.     Fig.  33 


18 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


illustrates  the  method  of  bisecting  a  line  by 
trial,  first  opening  the  dividers  at  a  guess  to 
one-half  the  length  of  the  line  and  stepping 
the  distance  off.  If  the  division  be  short, 
the  leg  should  be  thrown  out  to  one-half  the 
remainder,  estimated  by  the  eye,  without 
removing  the  other  leg  from  its  position  on 
the  paper,  and  the  line  spaced  again  with  the 
new  setting. 

Avoid  pricking  unsightly  holes  in  the 
paper.  The  position  of  a  small  prick  point 
may  be  preserved  if  necessary  by  drawing  a 
little  ring  around  it  with  the  pencil. 


between  front  and  side  views,  and  subtracting 
these  15"  from  the  length  of  the  sheet,  17",  we  find 
that  the  left  edge  of  the  front  view  should  be  started 
an  inch  from  the  left  border. 

Now  with  the  scale  measure  along  the  base  line 
the  horizontal  dimensions  for  the  front  view, 
marking  points  for  the  thickness  of  the  end  boards. 
At  the  same  time  measure  on  the  base  line  the  width 
of  the  side  view,  leaving  an  inch  between  views. 
Through  the  first  point  on  the  front  view  draw  a  long 
perpendicular,  measure  on  this  the  height  of  the  front 
view  and  the  thickness  of  the  bottom  board.  On 
the  same  line  mark  the  width  of  the  top  view, 
leaving  about  1>^"  between  views.  Through  these 
points  draw  horizontal  and  vertical  hues,  thus 
blocking  out  the  three  views.     Next  draw  on  the  side 


Fig.  34. — Feeding  stick  for  birds. 


PROBLEM  1. 

The  first  sheet  is  to  be  three  views  of  the  feeding 
stick  1  for  birds  shown  in  Fig.  34. 

Lay  off  a  12"  X  18"  sheet  with  }4"  border  as 
described  on  page  15. 

The  first  requirement  of  a  good  drawing,  after 
deciding  on  the  requisite  views,  is  to  have  the  views 
well  spaced  on  the  sheet.  A  quick  preliminary 
freehand  sketch  will  aid  in  this  study.  In  adding 
the  width  of  the  top  view,  4",  and  the  height  of  the 
front  view,  2J4",  and  leaving  say  l^'i"  between 
views,  we  would  have  7^".  Subtracting  this 
from  the  width  of  the  sheet  inside  the  border,  11", 
and  dividing  this  space  between  top  and  bottom,  we 
find  that  the  base  line  should  be  drawn  about  1%" 
from  the  bottom  border  line.  Adding  the  length, 
10",    and    the   width,    4",    and    allowing    an    inch 

1  Such  a  feeding  stick,  with  the  holes  filled  with 
suet  is  greatly  enjoyed  by  birds  in  winter. 


view,  the  slant  line  of  the  end  boards  and  a  dotted 
line  showing  the  block  behind.  This  block  will 
show  as  a  full  line  on  the  top  view.  On  the  front 
view  draw  the  center  line  A-B  for  the  holes,  and  on 
this  measure  the  distances  for  the  centers,  and  at  one 
of  the  centers  mark  the  radius  (%")  of  the  circle. 
At  this  stage  the  drawing  will  appear  something  like 
Fig.  35. 

When  the  circles  are  drawn  and  the  short  line 
formed  by  the  chamfer  of  the  end  boards  is  pro- 
jected across  from  the  side  view,  the  front  view  is 
completed. 

The  top  and  side  views  of  the  holes,  showing  their 
depth,  are  hidden  lines,  shown  as  indicated  in  the 
alphabet  of  lines,  and  are  projected  from  the  front 
view. 

When  the  drawing  is  finished  in  pencil  it  is  to  be 
inked.     It  is  shown  in  finished  stage  in  Fig.  36. 

Over-running  pencil  lines  should  not  be  erased 
until  after  the  drawing  is  inked. 


THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 


19 


Fig.  35. — First  stage  of  penciling. 


1 

1 
1 

» 

1 
t 

1                   r- 

---1          r~~ 

— 1 

J(^  ^  <i^  -(i>[ 


BIRD  FEEDING  STICK 
OAK 


Fig.  36. — Finished  ink  drawing. 


JOHN  W.  BLACK 


20 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Inking. 

Finished  drawings  are  either  inked  on  the 
paper  or  traced  on  tracing  cloth,  or  some- 
times on  tracing  paper.  Straight  Hnes  are 
inked  with  the  ruUng  pen,  which  is  filled  by 


Fig.  37. — Correct  pisition  of  ruling  pen. 

touching  the  quill  filler  attached  to  the  cork 
of  the  ink  bottle,  between  the  nibs  of  the 
pen,  being  careful  not  to  get  any  ink  on  the 
outside  of  the  blades.  Not  more  than  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  should  be  put  in  or  it 

Pen  pressed  aga/ns/'  Tscfuare  Too  ho/z/ 


f^/7  s/opec/  away  /hom  Tstfuare 


Pen  foo  c/ose  fo  ec/^e  //7k  ran  unc/er 
■P    •■  ■ 

/n/f  or?  oufs/'c/e  of  S/ade^  ran  under 


/%/?  b/ades  rjof  Aepf  para//e/  /b  Tsquare 


Tsquare  for  frianff/ej  s/ipped  info  wet //he 

w  \  r — n — I  nitwmii  iiiiiiiiinin— — iii^>i^w^ipn» 

^/of  er/ough  /r?/r  fo  fih'/sh //'ne 

Fig.  38.— Faulty  lines. 

will  drop  out  in  a  blot.  After  adjusting  the 
nibs  with  the  screw  to  give  the  correct  thick- 
ness of  line,  the  pen  is  held  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  37.  Keep  it  in  a  plane  perpendicular 
to  the  paper  and  draw  the  lines  with  T 
square  and  triangle. 


If  the  ink  refuses  to  flow  it  is  because  it  is 
dried  and  clogged  in  the  extreme  point  of  the 
pen.  This  clot  or  obstruction  may  be  re- 
moved by  touching  the  pen  on  the  finger  or 
by  pinching  the  blades  slightly.  If  it  still 
refuses  to  start  it  should  be  wiped  out  and 
fresh  ink  added.  The  pen  should  always  be 
wiped  clean  after  using. 

Faulty  Lines. 

If  inked  lines  appear  imperfect  in  any 
way,  the  reason  should  be  ascertained  im- 
mediately. Fig.  38  illustrates  the  char- 
acteristic appearance  of  several  kinds  of 
faulty  lines.  The  correction  in  each  case 
will  suggest  itself. 


Fig.  39. — Windmill  brake  shoe. 

PROBLEM  2. 

The  next  sheet,  three  views  of  a  windmill  brake 
shoe,  Fig.  39,  is  an  exercise  in  straight  and  curved 
lines. 

Draw  the  border  lines,  figure  the  spacing  as  was 
done  on  Sheet  1  and  lay  out  base  line,  and  a  vertical 
center  line  for  the  front  view.  Evidently  the  front 
view  is  the  one  to  make  first.  On  the  base  line  of 
the  front  view  set  off  the  centers  A  and  B  IM"  from 
the  vertical  center  line.  Measure  up  Y/^"  on  the 
vertical  center  line  and  draw  the  horizontal  line 
DE.  On  this  mark  the  1"  radius  for  the  middle 
circle,  whose  center  is  at  C  Measure  up  from  the 
center  C  \^i"  and  draw  the  upper  horizontal  line. 
Next  draw  vertical  lines  through  A  and  B.  With 
the  radii  indicated  draw  the  circle  arcs  with  A,  B 
and  C  as  centers.  The  construction  for  the  arcs 
from  the  centers  ¥  and  G  is  suggested  on  the  figure. 
Complete  the  measurements  for  the  front  view, 
then  draw  top  and  side  views,  measuring  the  widths 
and  projecting  the  other  dimensions  from  the  front 
view.  Fig.  40  illustrates  a  partially  completed 
stage  of  the  drawing,  and  Fig.  41  the  finished 
drawing.     Remember  as  a  fundamental  rule  that 


THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 


21 


r^Tf^N  I    I 


Fig.  40. — First  stages  in  penciling. 


■ 

WINDMILL  BKAhvL  5MUt. 
CAST  (RON 

^ r 

n          ;          r 

^ — ^ 

rn 

r 

S 

r^ 

1  1 

1 —    ■ 

LJ 

JOHN    W.  BLACK 


Fig.  41. — Inked  drawing. 


22 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


circles  and  circle  arcs  are  always  inked  before  the 
straight  lines  are  inked. 

Lettering 
A  working  drawing  requires  the  addition 


only  by  continued  and  careful  practice. 
Working  drawings  are  lettered  in  a  rapid 
single-stroke  style,  either  vertical  or  inclined, 
and  usually  all  capitals.  The  term  "single- 
stroke"  or  "one  stroke"  does  not  mean  that 
of  dimensions,  notes  on  material  and  finish,     the  entire  letter  is  made  without  lifting  the 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMN 

OP0RSTUVWXYZ& 

1234567890^ 


Fig.  42. — Upright  single-stroke  capitals. 


and  a  title,  all  of  which  must  be  lettered  free- 
hand in  a  style  that  is  perfectly  legible, 
uniform  and  capable  of  rapid  execution.  So 
far  as  its  appearance  is  concerned,  there  is  no 
part  of  a  drawing  so  important  as  the  letter- 


pen,  but  that  the  width  of  the  stroke  of  the 
pen  is  the  width  of  the  stem  of  the  letter. 
For  large  sizes  in  this  style,,  a  comparatively 
coarse  pen  such  as  Hunt's  No.  512  or 
Leonard's  ball  point  No.  516  F  is  used. 


Fig.  43. — Position  for  lettering. 


ing.  A  good  drawing  may  be  ruined  not 
only  in  appearance,  but  in  usefulness  by 
lettering  done  ignorantly  or  carelessly,  as 
illegible  figures  are  very  apt  to  cause  mistakes 
in  the  work. 

The  ability  to  letter  well  can  be  acquired 


Single-stroke  Vertical  Caps. 

The  upright  single  stroke  ''commercial 
gothic"  letter  shown  in  Fig.  42  is  one  of  the 
standard  forms.  To  practice  this  letter 
draw  a  page  of  guide  lines  ^{q"  apart,  hold 
the  pen  in  position  shown   in  Fig.  43  and 


THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 


23 


practice   each   letter   a   number   of   times,      Single-stroke  Inclined  Caps. 

following  the  order  and  direction  of  strokes  Many  draftsmen  prefer  inclined  letters  to 

given  in  Fig.  44,  and  watching  the  copy     vertical  letters.     They  should  be  practiced 

Hill  EEE////\\\\O0  0 

I 

|i'  iH'  L  'F  C  T  N"  N'  ¥%  M-  'M'  i^  V 
W  X  V  Z  #0  Q  CC30  UJP 
R  e.  S  .8-  &  3. 2  O'  €  9  '5  7  & 


Fig.  44. — Order  and  direction  of  strokes. 


carefully.     Letters  should  then  be  combined     in  the  same  way  as  explained  for  vertical 

into  words,  remembering  three  general  rules:     letters,    but    with    the    addition    of    slant 

1.  Keep  the  letters  close  together.  direction  lines  drawn  lightly  in  pencil  with  a 


^XlW/' 


T? 


OP 0  f^S  tU'  VWX  YZ& 
l234  66789Qi 

Fig.  45. — Inclined  single-stroke  capitals. 

2.  Have  the   areas   of  the   white  spaces  triangle  either  at  60  degrees  or  at  a  slant  of 

between  letters   approximately  equal    (thus  2  to  5,  in  order  to  keep  the  slant  uniform, 

two  o's  would  be  spaced  much  closer  together  Fig.  45  shows  the  alphabet  with  the  order 

than  two  n's).  and  direction -of  strokes  indicated. 


t^EERlS^S!t 


limTTUi 


tMWSEXJ£^  Rfinhardf 


Fig.  46. — Single-stroke  lower  case,  showing  strokes. 

3.  Keep  words  well  separated,  leaving  a     Single-stroke  Inclined  Lower  Case. 
space  between  them  at  least  equal  to  the         In  connection  with  the  inclined  capitals,  a 
height  of  the  letters.  standard  letter  for  notes  known  to  engineers 


24 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


as  the  Reinhardt  letter,  is  much  used.  This 
is  a  very  simple,  legible  and  effective  style 
which  can  be  made  very  rapidly  after 
its  swing  has  been  mastered.  The  body 
letters  are  made  two-thirds  the  height  of 
the  capitals.  It  is  shown  in  analyzed  form 
in  Fig.  46. 


standardized  in  form,  and  examples  are 
shown  in  connection  with  the  drawings  in 
Chapters  IV  and  V. 

Single-stroke  Roman. 

Fig.  47  shows  a  single  stroke  letter  based 
on   the   Roman,    which   is   appropriate   for 


ABCDEFGHIjFCLMN 

OP  aP.STUVWXYZ&' 

12345678901 


Fig.  47. — Single-stroke  Old  Roman. 


As  soon  as  the  letter  forms  have  been 
mastered,  all  the  practice  should  be  in  com- 
position. 

Never  do  any  lettering  without  having  a 
guide  line  for  both  tops  and  bottoms  of  the 
letters. 

Do  not  combine  vertical  letters  and  in- 
clined letters  on  the  same  drawing. 

Titles  and  bills  of  material  are  somewhat 


architectural  drawings.  The  addition  of 
the  terminal  cross  strokes,  called  serifs, 
requires  a  little  more  time  than  the  straight 
Gothic  letters,  and  it  will  be  noted  that  the 
shapes  vary  somewhat  from  the  Gothic. 
When  well  executed,  this  letter  adds  much 
to  the  beauty  of  an  architectural  drawing 
and  should  be  used  for  such  work  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  other  styles  given. 


THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE  '  26 


A  PAGE  OF  CAUTIONS 

Never  use  the  scale  as  a  ruler. 

Never  draw  with  the  lower  edge  of  the  T-square. 

Never  cut  paper  with  a  knife  and  the  edge  of  the  T-square  as  a  guide. 

Never  use  the  T-square  as  a  hammer. 

Never  put  either  end  of  a  pencil  in  the  mouth. 

Never  jab  the  dividers  into  the  drawing  board. 

Never  oil  the  joints  of  compasses. 

Never  use  the  dividers  as  reamers  or  pincers  or  picks. 

Never  take  dimensions  by  setting  the  dividers  on  the  scale. 

Never  lay  a  weight  on  the  T-square  to  hold  it  in  position. 

Never  use  a  blotter  on  inked  lines. 

Never  screw  the  nibs  of  the  pen  too  tight. 

Never  run  backward  over  a  line  either  with  pencil  or  pen. 

Never  leave  the  ink  bottle  uncorked. 

Never  hold  the  pen  over  the  drawing  while  filling. 

Never  dilute  ink  with  water.  If  too  thick  throw  it  away.  (Ink  once  frozen  is  worth- 
less afterward.) 

Never  try  to  use  the  same  thumb  tack  holes  when  putting  paper  down  the  second  time. 

Never  scrub  a  drawing  all  over  with  the  eraser  after  finishing.  It  takes  the  life  out  of 
the  inked  lines. 

Never  put  instruments  away  without  cleaning.     This  applies  with  particular  force  to  pens. 

Never  fold  a  drawing  or  tracing. 

Never  put  a  writing  pen  which  has  been  used  in  ordinary  writing  ink,  into  the  draw- 
ing-ink bottle. 


CHAPTER  III 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


The  definition  of  a  working  drawing  has 
already  been  stated  as  being  "a  drawing 
which  gives  all  the  information  necessary 
for  the  complete  construction  of  the  object 
represented."  It  is  a  technical  description 
of  a  structure  or  machine  which  has  been 
designed  for  a  certain  purpose  and  place,  and 
should  convey  all  the  facts  regarding  it  so 
clearly  and  explicitly  that  no  further  in- 
struction to  the  builder  would  be  required. 

The  drawing  will  thus  include,  (1)  the  full 
graphic  representation  of  the  shape  of  every 
part  of  the  object,  (2)  figured  dimensions  of 
all  the  parts,  (3)  explanatory  notes  giving 
specifications  in  regard  to  material,  finish, 
etc.,  (4)  a  descriptive  title,  and  in  some  cases 
a  bill  of  material. 

In  architectural  drawing  the  notes  of  ex- 
planation and  information  regarding  details 
of  materials  and  finish  are  often  too  extensive 
to  be  included  on  the  drawings,  so  are 
written  separately  and  are  called  the  speci- 
fications. These  specifications  have  equal 
importance  and  weight  with  the  drawings. 

The  basis  of  practically  all  working  draw- 
ing is  orthographic  projection,  as  explained 
in  Chapter  II.  Thus  to  represent  an  object 
completely,  at  least  two  views  would  be 
necessary,  often  more.  The  general  rule 
would  be,  make  as  many  views  as  are 
necessary  to  describe  the  object,  and  no 
more. 

Classes  of  Working  Drawings. 

Working  drawings  are  divided  into  two 
general  classes,  assembly  drawings  and  detail 
drawings.     An  assembly  drawing  or  general 


drawing  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a  drawing  of 
a  structure  or  machine  showing  the  relative 
positions  of  the  different  parts. 

A  detail  drawing  is  a  drawing  of  a  separate 
piece  or  group  of  pieces,  giving  the  complete 
description  for  the  making  of  each  piece. 
In  a  very  simple  case  the  assembly  drawing 
may  be  made  to  serve  also  as  the  detail 
drawing,  by  dimensioning  it  fully. 

Fig.  114  on  page  60  illustrates  an  assem- 
bly drawing,  and  Fig.  115,  page  61  a  detail 
drawing. 


Fig.  48. — Illustration  of  a  section. 

Sectional  Views. 

Often  it  is  not  possible  to  show  interior 
construction  clearly  by  dotted  lines  on  the 
exterior  view.  In  such  cases  a  view  is 
drawn  as  if  the  object  were  sawed  through 
and  the  front  removed  so  as  to  expose  the 
interior,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  48.  A  view 
of  this  kind  is  known  as  a  sectional  view,  or  a 
"section,"  and  the  surfaces  of  the  materials 
thus  cut  are  indicated  by  "section  lining"  or 
"cross-hatching"  with  diagonal  lines.     Two 


26 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


27 


adjoining  surfaces  are  sectioned  in  different 
directions. 

A  line  is  drawn  (line  8  in  the  alphabet  of 
lines)  on  the  adjacent  view  to  show  where  the 
section  is  assumed  to  be  cut,  and  short 
arrows  indicate  the  direction  in  which  the 


Section  lines  are  spaced  by  eye,  and  on  a 
finished  drawing  are  generally  put  in  directly 
in  ink  without  penciling. 

"Turned  sections"  or  revolved  sections 
are  little  sectional  views  drawn  on  some  part 
of  a  figure  as  if  they  had  been  cut  and  re- 


FiG.  49. — Section  of  roller  bearing. 


view  is  taken.  This  line  is  lettered  on  each 
end  and  the  section  is  named  to  correspond, 
as  "  Section  A B  ".  (See  Fig.  54.)  Some- 
times several  sections  through  different 
places  are  required  to  explain  the  construc- 
tion fully. 

A  common  practice,  which  saves  space  and 
labor,  is  to  show  one-half  a  view  in  section  and 
the  other  half  in  full,  as  in  Fig.  116,  page  62. 

In  a  sectional  view  it  is  not  necessary  to 
cut  through  everything  in  the  plane  of  the 
section.  For  example,  bolts,  nuts,  shafts, 
etc.,  show  to  better  advantage  if  left  in  full. 
Fig.  49  illustrates  the  method  of  showing  a 
section  containing  shafts,  bearings  and  bolts, 
all  of  which  are  drawn  in  full. 


volved  in  place.  They  show  the  shape  of 
the  cross-section  of  the  object  at  that  place, 
and  are  often  used  to  good  advantage.  Ex- 
amples are  shown  in  Figs.  49  and  50. 


H//^ 


MlZMii 


H 2-/0 »^ 

Fig.  50. — Revolved  sections. 

Auxiliary  Views. 

Sometimes  when  it  is  necessary  to  show 
some  feature  on  an  inclined  face  of  an  object, 
it  can  be  done  to  better  advantage  by  making 
what  is  known  as  an  auxiliary  view,  which 
may  be  thought  of  as  simply  a  projection 


28 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


looking  straight  against  the  inclined  surface, 
as  illustrated  in  Fig.  50.  Evidently  the 
width  of  this  auxiliary  view  would  be  the 
true  width  of  the  object,  as  indicated  by  "T^" 
on  the  figure,  and  its  length  is  of  course 
shown  in  edge  on  the  front  view.  Thus  to 
draw  an  auxiliary  view  we  would  first  draw 
a  center  line  for  it,  parallel  to  the  inclined 


Fig.  51. — An  auxiliary  view. 

face,  then  project  the  lengths  across  perpen- 
dicular to  this  center  line  from  the  inclined 
face,  and  would  measure  the  width  each 
way  from  the  center  line.  Thus  the  width 
of  the  auxiliary  view  would  be  the  same  as 
the  width  of  the  top  view  of  the  object, 
although  in  many  cases,  as  in  the  example 
given,  a  top  view  is  not  needed,  and  therefore 
not  drawn. 


sixteenths,  which  is  used  both  for  full  size, 
and  also  for  half  size  (scale  of  6  inches  =  1 
foot),  by  considering  the  divisions  on  the 
scale  to  have  double  values. 

If  the  object  is  too  large  to  be  duawn  half 
size,  the  drawing  is  made  to  the  scale  of  3 
inches  to  the  foot,  often  called  quarter  size, 
that  is,  a  length  of  3  inches  on  the  drawing 
is  equal  to  one  foot  on  the  object.  On  this 
scale  the  distance  of  3  inches  is  divided  into 
twelve  equal  parts  and  each  of  these  sub- 
divided into  eighths.  This  distance  should 
be  thought  of  not  as  3  inches  but  as  a  foot, 
divided  into  inches  and  eighths  of  inches. 

Notice  that  the  divided  foot  has  the  zero 
on  the  inside,  with  the  inches  running  from 
it  one  way,  and  the  feet  numbered  th*e  other 
way,  so  that  dimensions  given  in  feet  and 
inches  may  be  measured  directly,  as  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  52.  On  the  other  end  of  the 
3  inch  scale  will  be  found  the  scale  of  13^ 
inches  =  1  foot.  Other  scales  used  are  1 
inch  =  1  foot,  %  inch  =  1  foot,  %  inch 
=  1  foot,  3^:4  inch  =  1  foot,  ^g  inch  =  1', 
and  3-^  inch  =  1  foot.  The  scale  of  34  inch 
=  1  foot  is  the  usual  one  for  ordinary 
house  plans.  For  very  large  buildings  the 
scale  of  %  inch  =  1  foot  is  used.  Fig.  53 
illustrates  the  scale  in  position  for  measuring 
the  length  7  feet  5  inches. 

The    scale    and   its    divisions    should    be 


£ 


1-0^"— 


.  2'-0' 


■a'-r^" 


^ 


^^^.^^^^A^^' 


^S^^ 


(^^'^v^\^^:^^^^^\^\^^w^W^^^^^^\^^^^;^^^^^^^^ 


"XT 


XT 


y   ^   f   r  ~r 


7F 


f    ^'    ^ 


7   ^'    7 


1_ 


z. 


/IIMI//II, 


Fig.  52. — Reading  the  architect's  scale. 


Use  of  the  Scale. 

In  representing  objects  which  are  larger 
than  can  be  drawn  full  size,  the  dimensions 
are  reduced  proportionately  by  the  use  of  the 
architect's  scale.  On  the  usual  triangular 
form  there  are  eleven  different  scales,  in- 
cluding the  full  size  scale   of  inches   and 


studied  until  it  can  be  used  with  facility. 
See  for  example  what  fraction  of  an  inch  is 
represented  by  the  smallest  division  on  each 
scale;  and  notice  that  while  the  foot  marks 
are  numbered  in  both  directions,  the  numbers 
for  the  smaller  scale  are  always  closer  to  the 
edge  than  those  for  the  larger  one. 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


29 


Dimensioning. 

After  the  correct  representation  of  the 
object  by  its  projections,  the  entire  value  of 
the  drawing  as  a  working  drawing  Ues  in  the 
dimensioiiing.  This  placing  of  the  figured 
dimensions  must  be  done  with  careful 
thought    of   the   purpose    of   the    drawing, 


Fig.  53. — Measuring  with  scale  (7  ft.  5  in.) 

getting  the  figures  necessary  and  most  con- 
venient for  the  workman  who  is  to  work 
from  it.  To  make  the  best  drawing  the 
draftsman  should  be  familiar  with  the  various 
processes  of  construction  and  shop  methods 
which  enter  into  the  building  of  the  object 
represented. 

General  Rules  for  Dimensioning. 

Dimension  figures  are  placed  in  a  space 
left  in  the  dimension  line,  as  shown  in  the 


alphabet  of  lines,  and  the  exact  points 
between  which  the  distance  is  measured  are 
indicated  by  arrow  heads  on  the  ends  of  the 
line,  short  extension  lines  being  drawn  from 
the  object  if  the  dimension  line  is  on  the 
outside. 

All  the  extension  and  dimension  lines 
should  be  drawn  before  any  figures  are 
added. 

Dimensions  always  indicate  the  finished 
size  of  the  piece. 

Dimensions  should  read  from  the  bottom 
and  right  side  of  the  sheet,  no  matter  what 
part  of  the  sheet  they  are  on. 

Feet  and  inches  are  indicated  thus  5'-6". 
Where  there  are  no  inches  it  should  be 
written  5'-0",  5'-0>^". 

Fractions  should  be  made  with  a  hori- 
zontal line  as  21". 

The  diameter  of  a  circle  should  be  given, 
not  the  radius. 

Dimensions  should  generally  be  placed 
between  views. 

In  general  do  not  repeat  dimensions  on 
adjacent  views. 

Always  give  an  over-all  dimension.  Never 
require  the  workman  to  add  or  subtract 
figures. 


Dimensioning. 


30 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Never  use  any  center  line  as  a  dimension 
line. 

Never  put  a  dimension  on  a  line  of  the 
drawing. 

A  dimension  not  agreeing  with  the  scaled 
distance,  should  be  heavily  underscored  as 
in  Fig.  54. 

Fig.  54  should  be  observed  carefully, 
noting  the  shape  of  the  arrow  heads,  and  the 
method  of  showing  dimensions  in  special 
cases.  The  figure  also  illustrates  the  use  of 
the  symbol  "f"  to  indicate  that  a  metal 


Several  examples  are  shown  in  Chapter  IV. 
For  a  large  structure,  as  a  barn  for  example, 
the  bill  of  material  is  too  extensive  to  be  put 
on  the  drawings,  so  is  written  separately. 

Checking. 

Before  being  sent  out  for  use,  a  working 
drawing  should  be  checked  for  errors  and 
omissions,  if  possible  by  some  one  other  than 
the  man  who  made  it.  In  doing  this  the 
system  below  should  be  followed,  taking  the 
divisions  through  one  at  a  time. 


CAST  IRON 

(metal  W  e£N£/fAL) 


BABBITT 

(oa  WHITE  METAL) 


BRASS 
(or  composition) 


CAST  STEEL 


WROUGHT  IRON 


■•:v:.-;.i>:-"A-.>: 


WOOD 
(  c/r055  ^Ecr/on] 


LIQUID 
Fig.  55. — Symbols  for  materials  in  section. 


CONC/iCTE 


surface  is  to  be  "finished"  or  machined,  and 
the  placing  of  the  check  mark. 

Do  not  he  afraid  to  put  notes  on  drawings. 
Supplement  the  graphic  language  by  the 
English  language  whenever  added  infor- 
mation can  be  conveyed,  but  be  careful  to 
word  it  so  clearly  that  the  meaning  cannot 
possibly  be  misunderstood. 

The  title  to  a  working  drawing  is  usually 
boxed  in  the  lower  right  hand  corner,  and 
its  contents  will  vary  according  to  the  kind  of 
drawing.  In  general  it  should  contain  the 
name  of  the  structure,  name  of  manufacturer 
or  owner,  date,  scale,  and  drafting  record 
including  number,  initials  or  name  of  drafts- 
man, tracer,  checker,  etc.  Various  titles  are 
shown  in  Chapter  IV. 

The  bill  of  material  is  a  tabulated  form  on 
the  drawing  giving  the  name,  number 
wanted,   size   and   material   of  each   piece. 


First,  put  yourself  in  the  place  of  the  one 
who  is  to  work  from  the  drawing,  and  see  if 
it  is  easy  to  read. 

Second,  see  that  each  piece  is  correctly 
illustrated. 

Third,  check  all  dimensions  by  scaling, 
and  also  by  calculation  where  necessary. 
As  each  dimension  is  verified,  put  a  check 
mark  (s/)  in  pencil  above  it. 

Fourth,  see  that  all  specifications  for 
material  are  correctly  given. 

Fifth,  see  that  stock  sizes  of  materials 
have  been  used  as  far  as  possible. 

Sixth,  add  any  explanatory  notes  that  will 
^increase  the  efficiency  of  the  drawing. 

Conventional  Symbols 

In  technical  drawing  there  are  certain 
signs  l^d  simplified  outlines  called  "con- 
ventions" which  are  adopted  and  recognized 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


31 


as  standing  for  materials  or  commonly  used 
constructions.  Screw  threads  and  gear 
wheels  for  example  are  not  drawn  in  their 
actual  outline  but  are  shown  conventionally. 
Other   conventions   are   used   for   electrical 


ROUND  SECTION 


If. 


ROUND  SECTION 


WOOD   (square  SECTION) 


I  BEAM 


ANGLE  IRON 


CHAIN 


ROPE  OR  CABLE 
Fig.  56. — Conventional  breaks  and  symbols. 

wiring  and  apparatus,  for  sections  of  con- 
crete, wood,  etc.,  and  for  topography.  Such 
of  these  as  may  be  useful  in  agricultural 
drawing  have  been  given  in  various  places  in 
this  book. 

In  specifying  materials  it  is  much  safer 
to  add  the  name  of  the  material  as  a  note 


than  to  depend  on  a  symbol.  The  drawing 
is  easier  to  read  however  if  generally  recog- 
nized sections  are  used  for  the  commoner 
materials.  Fig.  55  shows  some  of  the  con- 
ventional section  lining  symbols,  and  Fig. 
56  a  number  of  conventional  breaks  and 
other  symbols.  Symbols  used  in  building 
construction  are  shown  in  Fig.  96,  page  48. 
A  long  object  of  uniform  section  may  be 
shown  to  larger  scale  and  thus  to  better  ad- 
vantage by  drawing  it  as  if  a  piece  were 
broken  out  of  the  middle  and  the  ends 
pushed  up  together,  indicating  the  break  by 
the  symbols  of  Fig.  56  or  by  the  "limiting 
break  line"  (line  10  of  the  alphabet  of  lines), 
and  giving  the  over-all  dimension.  Fig.  126, 
page  74,  is  an  example  of  this  principle 
applied  to  the  drawing  of  a  building. 

Fastenings. 

In  every  working  drawing  will  occur  the 
necessity  of  representing  the  methods  of 
fastening  parts  together.  Fastenings  are 
either  permanent,  as  rivets  and  nails,  or 
removable,  as  bolts,  screws,  keys  and  pins. 
In  drawing  ordinary  wooden  structures  the 
nails  are  not  shown,  unless  there  is  some 
special  reason  for  their  location  or  number. 
Other  fastenings,  such  as  rivets,  bolts,  etc., 
are  indicated  by  conventional  symbols. 

Bolts  and  Screws. 

Bolts  and  screws  are  used  for  fastening 
parts  together,  for  adjusting,  and  for  trans- 
mitting power  or  motion.  There  are  many 
different  forms  of  bolts,  and  several  different 
kinds  of  threads,  for  these  different  purposes. 
In  drawing,  we  should  know  the  conven- 
tional method  of  representing  the  ordinary 
types  used. 

The  usual  form  of  screw  thread  is  the  U.  S. 
Standard,  a  V  thread  at  60  degrees,  with  the 
tip  flattened  and  the  root  filled  in.  Among 
other  forms  are  the  sharp  V,  the  square 
thread  and  the  buttress  thread.  Fig.  57. 
When  not  otherwise  specified,  the  U.  S, 
Standard  is  always  understood  as  required. 


32 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


In  ordinary  drawing,  threads  are  not 
drawn  in  actual  form  but  are  indicated  con- 
ventionally. Fig.  58  shows  several  methods 
used.  That  shown  in  A  is  the  simplest  and 
best.     It  is  not  necessary  to  have  the  lines 


i/.S.  STANDARD 


SHARP  V ' 


SQUARE  ec/TrPESS 

Fig.  57. — Some  forms  of  threads. 


ABC 
Fig.  58. — Conventional  threads. 


Fig.  59. — Dimensioned  bolt. 

spaced  exactly  to  the  pitch,  or  distance  apart, 
of  the  actual  threads,  but  to  look  well  they 
should  somewhat  approximate  it. 

To  Dtaw  a  Bolt. 

There  are  adopted  standards  for  standard 
hexagonal  and  square  head  bolts  and  nuts, 
hence  in  drawing,  one  view  only  is  necessary, 


and  the  only  dimensions  required  are  the 
diameter,  the  length  (under  the  head)  and 
the  amount  of  thread.  Fig.  59.  In  drawing 
a  hex.  head  three  faces  are  shown,  and  in 
a  square  head,  one  face.  Figs.  60  and  61  are 
full  size  Y^'  bolts,  given  to  show  the  pro- 
portions and  method  of  drawing  a  hex.  head 
and  a  square  head  bolt  and  nut,  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  chamfer  finish. 

Fig.  62  illustrates  a  number  of  common 
forms  of  screw  fastenings. 

Pipes. 

Pipe  threads  are  cut  on  a  taper,  which  is 
usually  exaggerated  slightly  in  drawing. 

Pipe  is  designated  by  the  nominal  inside 
diameter,  which  differs  slightly  from  the 
actual  diameter,  so  that  in  drawing  pipe  we 
should  know  the  outside  diameter,  and  in 
figuring  sizes  needed,  we  should  know  the 
actual  inside  diameters  or  areas.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  these  sizes. 


Pipe 

Sizes 

Nominal  inside 

Actual   outside 

Actual  inside 

Internal 

diameter 

diameter 

diameter 

area 

M 

.54 

.36 

.10 

% 

.675 

.49 

.19 

M 

.84 

.62 

.30 

K 

1.05 

.82 

.53 

1 

1.315 

1.05 

.86 

IM 

1.66 

1.38 

1.49 

IK 

1.9 

1.61 

2.03 

2 

2.375 

2.06 

3.35 

2K 

2.875 

2.46 

4.78 

3 

3.5 

3.06 

7.38 

The  method  of  drawing  the  usual  fittings 
to  different  scales  is  shown  in  Fig.  63. 

Developed  Surfaces. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  draw  a  full 
sized  pattern  to  which  a  piece  of  sheet  metal 
may  be  cut,  which  when  rolled  or  formed  up 
will  make  a  required  piece.  The  operation 
of  laying  out  the  pattern  from  the  drawing 
is  called  the  development  of  the  surface.     In 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


33 


D=  DIAM,  OF  BOLT 


Fig.  60. — Construction  of  hexagonal  head  bolt. 


D  =  DMM.  OF  BOLT. 
■S  =  li D  *s' 


Fig.  61. — Construction  of  square  head  bolt. 


34 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


our  limited  space  we  can  only  suggest  the 
fundamentals  of  this  branch  of  working 
drawings. 

The  pattern  for  a  cylinder  would  evidently 
be  a  rectangle,  whose  width  would  be  the 
length  of  the  cylinder  and  whose  length 
would  be  equal  to  the  circumference,  Fig.  64, 


To  develop  a  Cylinder.     Fig.  66. 

In  rolling  a  cylinder  out,  the  base  will 
develop  into  a  straight  line,  called  the 
"stretchout  line."  Divide  the  base  into  a 
number  of  equal  parts.  Project  these  points 
as  elements  on  the  front  view.  Draw  the 
stretchout  line  and  step  off  the  divisions  of 


PLOW     BOLT 


EYE  BOLT 


Flot         Round        Fillister 
MACHINE    SCREWS 


Round     cocNMC 


=0 


imiim>  ( 


LAG  SCREW 


HANGER    BOLT 


EXPANSION    BOLT 


^ 


Bent       ■«««^=^) 
SCREW  HOOKS 


o 


^^ 


i 


^, 


CAP   SCREW         WINO  NUT 


STUD 


TURN  BUCKLES 


DRIVE  SCREW  1/  ^^^^^^^. 


^  0  @ 


Button  Head  Pan  'Head 

RIVET 


WOOD  SCREWS 


^  V 


Sq.  Head      Headless      Safety 
SET  SCREWS 


iH 


WAGON  BOX   BOLT 

Fig.  62. — Various  bolts  and  screws. 


f/Z/M  KZ223         /y///l  ryXy^ 

3 feel  Cast  Iron 

WASHERS 


and  the  pattern  for  a  cone  would  be  a  sector, 
with  a  radius  equal  to  the  slant  height  and 
an  arc  equal  in  length  to  the  circumference 
of  the  base,  Fig.  65. 

In  the  development  of  any  object  we 
must  first  have  its  projections,  and  in  prac- 
tical applications  must  allow  for  seams  and 
lap. 


the  base  on  it.  Through  these  points  draw 
the  elements  and  project  their  lengths  across 
in  order  from  the  front  view.  Connect 
these  points  by  a  smooth  curve. 

To  develop  a  Truncated  Cone.     Fig.  67. 

Divide   the   base   as   before.     Draw   the 
stretchout  line  with  a  radius  equal  to  the 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


35 


Fig.  63. — Pipe  fittings,  as  drawn  in  small  scale  and  large  scale. 


slant  height  of  the  completed  cone,  O'A'. 
Step  off  the  divisions  of  the  base  on  the 
stretchout  line  as  shown  and  connect  the 
two  end  points  with  the  center  0' .  Then 
draw  the  arc  for  the  small  end  with  the  radius 
O'B'. 


on  EA.  Complete  the  pyramid,  finding  the 
apex  O.  Since  the  edge  EA  is  not  shown  in 
its  true  length  on  the  front  view,  it  must  be 
revolved  about  the  axis  of  the  pyramid  until 
it  is  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane,  by  swing- 
ing the  top  view  of  the  line  from  OA  to  OA" 


Fig.  64. 

To  develop  a  Prism. 

Fig.  68  illustrates  the  development  of  the 
surface  of  a  square  prism  with  a  sloping  top, 
with  the  seam  at  the  corner  EA.  The  con- 
struction is  evident  from  the  figure. 

To  develop  a  Pyramid. 

Fig.  69  shows  the  method  of  developing 
a  truncated  square  pyramid  with  the  seam 


Fig.  65. 

and  projecting  the  point  A"  down  to  A^ 
Project  E  across  to  the  line  O'A',  then  E'A.*^ 
will  be  true  length  of  the  edge  EA.  (The 
pyramid  may  be  imagined  to  be  slipped  in- 
side of  a  cone  having  the  same  slant  as  the 
edges  of  the  pyramid,  and  O'A'  will  be  the 
true  length  of  an  element  of  this  cone.) 
With  O'A'  as  a  radius,  draw  an  arc  as  in  the 
development  of  the  cone  and  on  this  step  off 


36 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


''r 

-j/ 

\ 

\P^ 

\ 

1       ,      li^^ 

•^ 

1     U^^ 

Fig.  66. — Development  of  a  cylinder. 


/     -2 


Fig.  67. — Development  of  a  cone. 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


37 


GC 


FB 


DC 


AB         A 


3  C 

Fig.  68. — Development  of  a  prism. 


1 

o 

■- 

\ 

/ 

DC 


Fig.  69. — Development  of  a  pyramid. 


38 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


the  four  edges  of  the  base  of  the  pyramid 
ABCD.  Connect  the  points  ABCDA  with 
O  giving  the  folding  edges.  Find  the  devel- 
opment of  the  upper  end  by  drawing  an  arc 
with  the  radius  O'E'. 

Method  of  Working 

In  making  a  working  drawing,  after  the 
scheming  and  inventing  has  been  done  in 
freehand  sketches,  the  order  of  procedure 
in  penciling  should  be  about  as  follows: 
first,  lay  off  the  sheet  with  border  line,  and 
block  out  space  for  the  title;  second,  plan 
the  sheet,  deciding  upon  the  number  and  ar- 
rangement of  views,  always  selecting  as  large 
a  scale  as  possible;  third,  draw  center  lines 
for  each  view  and  lay  off  the  principal  dimen- 
sions; fourth,  complete  the  projections;  fifth, 
draw  the  dimension  lines,  and  put  in  the 
dimensions;  sixth,  lay  out  the  title;  seventh, 
check  the  drawing  carefully. 

Order  of  Inking. 

First,  ink  all  circles,  then  circle  arcs;  sec- 
ond, ink  the  straight  lines  in  the  order — 
horizontal,  vertical,  inclined;  third,  ink  cen- 
ter lines,  extension  and  dimension  lines; 
fourth,  ink  the  dimensions;  fifth,  section  line 
cut  surfaces ;  sixth,  ink  notes,  title  and  border 
line;  seventh,  check  the  tracing. 

Sketching  from  the  Object. 

In  our  previous  consideration  of  freehand 
sketching  from  pictorial  views  (page  9), 
we  were  concerned  with  the  projections  only. 
In  connection  with  working  drawings,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  make  a  dimensioned 
sketch  from  the  object  itself,  as  for  example, 
in  the  case  of  a  broken  piece  of  machinery. 

The  procedure  would  be  somewhat  in  the 
order  indicated.  First,  study  the  object  and 
determine  the  necessary  views;  second, 
sketch  center  lines,  observe  the  proportions 
and  block  in  principal  parts  of  the  outline; 
third,  finish  the  projections;  fourth,  draw  all 
dimension  lines  and  arrow-heads,  before  put- 


ting any  figures  in;  fifth,  measure  the  object 
and  put  the  dimensions  on  the  sketch;  sixth, 
check  for  errors  and  omissions;  seventh,  date 
and  sign  the  sketch. 

Sometimes  it  requires  considerable  ingenu- 
ity to  get  accurate  measurements.  A  two 
foot  rule  and  calipers  would  be  required  for 
castings  and  small  objects,  and  a  steel  tape 
for  larger  structures.  A  plumb  line  is  often 
of  service,  and  other  devices  will  suggest 
themselves  as  the  occasion  demands. 

The  commonest  fault  in  sketching  is  the 
overlooking  of  some  important  dimension 
whose  omission  is  discovered  as  soon  as  the 
working  drawing  to  scale  is  started. 

PROBLEMS 

In  application  of  the  principles  of  this 
chapter,  selections  from  the  following  prob- 
lems are  to  be  made,  and  the  complete 
working  drawings  with  all  necessary  dimen- 
sions, notes,  and  title  are  to  be  drawn. 
Use  a  standard  sized  sheet  (either  12"  X 
18"  or  18"  X  24"),  and  follow  the  method 
of  working  as  outlined  on  the  previous 
page,  selecting  suitable  scale,  deciding  upon 
the  views  necessary,  and  making  prelimin- 
ary sketch  plan  for  the  sheet.  The  draw- 
ings may  be  inked,  or  preferably  traced  on 
tracing  cloth  for  blue  printing.  Some  of 
the  problems  have  complete  data  and  di- 
mensions given,  others  are  intended  to  be 
designed  by  the  student. 

Be  particularly  careful  to  follow  the 
rules  for  dimensioning. 

Problems 

1.  Make  the  working  drawing  of  a  box  for  fence 
repair  kit,  from  the  sketch,  Fig.  70.  (Of  course  the 
words  "hammer,"  etc.,  will  not  appear  on  the 
drawing.) 

2.  Working  drawing  of  germinating  or  corn  testing 
box,  from  the  sketch,  Fig.  71.  The  bottom  is 
rabbeted  so  as  to  be  water  tight,  and  the  saw  cuts 
are  to  hold  cords  for  making  divisions. 

3.  Working  drawing  of  heavy  clevis,  Fig.  72. 
Specify  wrought  iron  or  mild  steel. 

4.  Working  drawing  of  sheep  feeding  rack,  Fig. 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


39 


Fig.  70.— Toolbox. 


Sat^  Cufs    I  'Peep 


/  MATERIAL 


Fig,  71. — Com  tester. 


73.     Decide  length  wanted  and  space  sills  not  more 
than  six  feet  apart. 

5.  Working  drawing  of  sheep  feeding  rack  using 
alternate  form  shown  in  Fig.  74.  This  has  larger 
capacity  than  Fig.  73,  and  the  flaring  boards  pre- 
vent dirt  from  getting  into  the  wool  on  the  sheep's 
neck. 

6.  Working  drawing  of  milk  stool,  Fig.  75. 


Fig.  72.— Clevis. 

7.  Working  drawing  of  sack  holder.  Fig.  76.  A 
mortised  wood  brace  may  be  substituted  for  the 
wrought  iron  brace.  The  hooks  may  be  made  of 
finishing  nails. 

8.  Working  drawing  of  gang  mold  for  test  pieces, 
Fig.  77.  This  mold  is  for  making  standard  1^"  X 
\yi"  X  6"  test  specimens  used  in  the  rough  determi- 


FiG.  73. — Sheep  rack. 


40 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


nation  of  the  breaking  strength  of  cement.     Detail 
such  parts  as  are  necessary  for  showing  construction. 

9.  Working  drawing  of  forms  for  concrete  hog 
trough,  Fig.  78  (the  trough  is  cast  inverted). 

10.  Working  drawing  of  plank  road  drag,  Fig. 
79.  Use  conventional  symbol  in  showing  a  %" 
chain  7  ft.  long,  attached  to  hooks. 


Fig.  74. — Sheep  rack. 

- 11.  Working   drawing   of   split   log   drag,    using 
same  dimensions  as  in  Problem  10. 

12.  Working  drawing  of  low-down  silo  rack.  Fig. 
80.  The  wrought  iron  end  plates  are  }i"  stock 
with  1}4"  hole  and  fastened  with  %"  bolts.  The 
rack  is  swung  under  the  axles  of  a  wagon  from  which 


-As'^ 


Fig.  75.— Milk  stool. 

the  bed  and  reach  have  been  removed.     The  bed 
pieces  are  hung  to  the  rear  axle  by  clip  irons. 

13.  Working  drawing  of  stone  boat,  Fig.  81, 
using  auxiliary  projection  for  nose. 

14.  Working  drawing  of  boot  jack.  Fig.  82  (side 
view  and  auxiliary  projection  are  the  only  views 
needed). 


white:  f^ir^e .   appl-t-  a  Mixrupe  op 
£:quai-  PAPrs  bo/lco  i./f\/s£:£:o  oJi- 

AND    HEPOS£:/V£ 


Fig.  77. — Gang  mold. 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


41 


Fig.  78. — Form  for  concrete  trough. 


^f  plaf-e 


Fig.  79. — Road  drag. 


42 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


15.  Working  drawing  of  fly  wheel,  Fig.  83  (front 
view  and  section). 


Fig.  80.— Silo  rack. 

16.  Working   drawing  of   flanged   roller,  Fig.  84 
(front  view  and  section). 

17.  Working  drawing  of  home  made  muffler  for 


19.  Working  drawing  of  ice  box,  Fig.  87.  This 
design  is  called  the  Rochester  cold  box,  and  is 
easily  built  and  very  efficient. 

20.  Working  drawing  of  farm  gate,  Fig.  88. 
Length  may  be  varied  if  desired. 

21.  Working  drawing  of  farm  gate  of  your  own 
design.  Suggestions  of  different  forms  may  be 
had  from  Fig.  133,  page  8L 

22.  Working  drawing  of  grindstone  and  frame, 
Fig.  89,  making  assembly  and  detail  drawings. 

23.  Working  drawing  of  sheave.  Fig.  90.  Show 
right  half  of  side  view  in  section. 

24.  Working  drawing  of  cattle  breeding  crate. 
Fig.  91,  including  bill  of  material. 

25.  Working  drawing  of  fly  trap,  Fig.  92.  The 
bait  holders  d  are  can  lids. 

26.  Develop  patterns  for  three  piece  elbow,  Fig.  93. 


e/ffcH 

BEECH 


Fig.  81. — Stone  boat. 


gas  engine.   Fig.    85   (for    dimension    of    pipe,   see 
table  of  pipe  sizes). 

18.  Working    drawing    of    road,    or    community 


Fig.  82.— Boot  jack. 

bulletin  board.  Fig.  86.  This  drawing  may  be 
fully  completed  by  adding  in  upright  Gothic 
letters,  the  lettering  to  be  painted  on  the  board. 


27.  Develop  pattern  for  conical  reflector.  Fig.  94. 

28.  Develop  pattern  for  hexagonal  lamp  shade. 
Fig.  94. 

29.  Develop  pattern  for  funnel,  Fig.  95. 

30.  Develop  patterns  for  sheet  metal  hopper, 
Fig.  95. 

Models  may  be  made  of  problems  26  to  30  by 
cutting  the  patterns  out  of  paper  and  rolling  or 
forming  them  up  and  pasting.  If  this  is  done, 
allowance  must  be  made  for  lap. 

31.  Make  a  working  drawing  of  a  hay  rack.  The 
two  bed  or  body  pieces  are  to  be  2"  X  8"  hard  pine 
sixteen  feet  long  set  on  edge.  Across  these  place  on 
edge  five  2"  X  6"  pieces  seven  feet  long  for  narrow 
rack,  or  eight  feet  for  wide  rack.  Floor  the  whole 
with  1"  material.  For  securing  the  cross  pieces  to 
the  bed,  use  clip  irons  as  shown  in  Fig.  20  {M  and 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


43 


N)  page  12.  The  bed  pieces  should  be  placed  so  as 
to  overhang  the  front  bolster  eighteen  inches,  and 
should  be  twenty-four  inches  apart  in  front  to  allow 
a  wide  turning  radius  for  the  front  wheels,  and 
flare  back  to  full  width,  forty-two  inches,  at  the 
rear  bolster.     The  front  should  be  provided  with  a 


Fig.  83.— Flywheel. 

false  bolster  to  prevent  shifting  from  side  to  side. 
A  standard,  made  of  2"  X  4"  pieces  six  feet  long 
will  be  required. 

32.  Design  a  basket  rack.  A  simple  basket  rack 
may  be  made  as  follows.  On  the  hay  rack  described 
in  Prob.  31,  erect  2"  X  4"  pieces  thirty-eight  to 


forty-two  inches  long  at  each  end  of  every  cross- 
piece,  securing  them  with  bolts  or  irons.  To  these 
fasten  three  fence  boards  lengthwise  and  spaced 
evenly  up  and  down.  On  the  end  standards  nail 
similar  boards  and  secure  the  comers  with  large 
hasps  and  staples. 


Fig.  84. — Flanged  roller. 

33.  Make  a  working  drawing  of  a  gate  post  mold 
for  12"  X  12"  X  S'-O"  concrete  post.  The  post 
to  be  reinforced  by  four  %"  rods  wired  at  each  foot 
of  length. 

34.  Working  drawing  of  gang  mold  for  fence 
posts  seven  feet  long  with  4X4  top  and  4X6 
bottom,  posts  to  be  reinforced  with  four  J^"  rods. 
Rods  not  to  be  closer  than  1"  to  outside. 


7  Sfonc/ard  f^/'pe 


Fyange  for  3  "s^ondore^  /tupe 


Fig.  85.— Muffler. 


44 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


36.  Design  a  work  bench  34"  high,   using  the 
following  material — 

Top 2  pes.  1  X  14  X  8'-  0" 

Aprons 2  pes.  1  X  12  X  8'-  0" 

Cross  Boards.  .   4  pes.  1  X  12  X  2'-  2" 

Legs 4  pes.  2  X    4X2'-  9" 

Cross  Ties 2  pes.  IX    4X2'-  2" 

Wood  vise  screw  8"  from  top. 


i 


\ 


/■rtf  WHITC 
fWCMATCHCD 
AND  OHESSED 


■/"■fAMTEPIAL 


4t4fVST  or 
LOCUST  Oft 

c»csrNur 

fiOL£  J'-O'OECP 


Wl^r. 


Fig.  86.— Bulletin  board. 

36.  Design  a  pipe  railing  for  the  approach  to  a 
bank  barn — use  \}4,"  pipe  and  the  following 
fittings:  cross,  tee,  90°  ell,  flange. 

37.  Design  a  layout  of  the  water  piping  for  a 


farm  where  the  water  is  piped  from  a  well  to  a 
sink  in  the  kitchen;  from  the  well  to  a  tank  in  the 
barn  yard,  and  off  this  line  three  outlets,  one  to 
horse  stable,  one  to  hog  house  and  one  to  dairy 
house.  The  house  supply  pipe  is  1",  that  to  tank 
2";  all  others  }4."  pipe.  Note  on  drawing  and 
make  list  of  all  necessary  fittings. 


SIDES,  £NDS  AND 
BOTTOM  OF  INSIDE  Of 
WOOO£N  BOX  LINCD  WITH 
'WIRE  FLY  SCHEEN.  <^j 

SPACe  AROUAID  ZINC  TANKi 
TO  BE  FIU.£D  AND  "<. 

PACI^ED  TIGHT  IVITH  FINE 
WOOD  SM/m/NGS. 


ZINC  TANK 
£3"i.ON6 
IS^'tvlOE 
IS  '0££P 


Fig.  87. — Ice  box. 

38.  Design  a  cold  frame,  using  34"  X  52"  sash. 

39.  Design  a  suitable  wood  box  for  firewood. 
Box  to  be  of  neat  design  to  match  woodwork  in 
kitchen.     A  sloping,  hinged  lid  should  be  provided. 


3  -■  -* 


Fig.  88. — Farm  gate. 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


45 


"       /.  Leff 


-i  t^ 

C/fANK,W:/. 


B£ARING,  C.  /. 
■Drill  A 


ji?/?  ^ 


SH/iFr.STElCL 
Fig.  89. — Grindstone  frame  details. 


Fig.  90.— Sheave. 


'§' 


Fig.  91. — Cattle  breeding  crate. 


46 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


40.  Design  and  draw  a  trap  nest.     The  Connect!-      chest.     The  two  till  chest  shown  in  Fig.  180,  page 
cut  trap  nest  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2,  page  2.     Nest       110,  may  serve  for  suggestion. 
should  be  at  least  12"  square  in  the  clear.  Additional  working  drawing  problems   may   be 


Fig.  93. — Three-piece  elbow. 


r^H 


k —  a"  ■■-»[ 
Fig.  94. — Reflector  and  lamp  shade. 


Fig.  92. — Homemade  fly  trap. 


Fig.  95. — Funnel  and  hopper. 


41.  Design  a  wash  bench  16"  high,  3  ft.  long,       made  from  Figs.  160  to  181  in  Chapter  VI,  and  may 
with  wringer  board  in  the  middle.  be  suggested  by  other  illustrations  throughout  the 

42.  Design  and  make  working  drawing  of  a  tool      book. 


CHAPTER  IV 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


Under  the  head  of  farm  structures  would 
properly  be  included  any  structural  work 
built  for  confining,  enclosing  or  covering 
animals,  machinery,  or  materials,  and  of 
course  including  dwellings.  Thus  fences, 
paddocks,  pens,  gates,  etc.,  would  be  called 
confining  structures,  while  enclosing  and 
covering  structures  would  include  houses, 
barns,  and  sheds,  together  with  any  building 
work  which  would  improve  them  or  make 
them  more  efficient;  for  example,  a  manure 
pit  and  a  silo  would  add  to  the  eflEiciency 
of  a  dairy  barn. 

In  this  chapter  we  are  to  consider  the 
methods  of  designing  and  drawing  these 
structures. 

Designing  is  simply  suiting  form  to 
function.  Thus  in  the  design  of  any  struc- 
ture we  must  first  consider  the  reasons 
and  uses  for  it,  following  mentally  in  detail 
all  through  the  operations  which  will  be 
performed  in  it,  and  making  it  to  such  form 
that  it  will  serve  its  full  purpose  to  the  best 
advantage  possible,  and  be  practical  and 
economical  both  in  construction  and  opera- 
tion. After  the  general  design  has  been 
thought  out,  the  drawing  of  it  is  the  ap- 
plication of  the  principles  of  the  language 
which  we  have  been  studying.  Training  in 
this  systematic  process  of  reasoning,  and  in 
the  ability  to  think  on  paper  is  of  particu- 
lar value  to  the  farmer.  It  gives  him  the 
power  to  plan  for  improvements,  to  esti- 
mate costs,  and  to  read  intelligently  plans 
presented  to  him'. 

The  actual  execution  of  these  structural 


drawings  is  comparatively  simple,  as  they 
are  made  up  principally  of  straight  lines. 
After  one  is  familiar  with  the  instruments 
and  the  theory  of  working  drawings,  all 
that  is  needed  in  making  drawings  of  struc- 
tures is  a  facility  in  the  use  of  the  scale 
and  a  knowledge  of  the  conventional  symbols 
used  in  representing  different  materials 
and  different  parts.  The  drawing  of  larger 
structures  must  be  done  to  such  small  scale 
that  the  details  of  these  parts  can  not  be 
shown  but  are  only  indicated  by  standard 
signs.  Their  construction  is  shown  by  de- 
tail drawings  to  larger  scale,  which  are  usu- 
ally grouped  on  separate  sheets. 

Symbols. 

On  page  30  the  use  of  conventional 
symbols  was  explained,  and  examples  used 
in  working  drawings  were  illustrated.  In 
structural  drawing  we  need  to  know  the 
conventional  symbols  for  doors,  windows, 
etc.,  as  well  as  the  symbols  for  sections  of 
different  materials.  Fig.  96  gives  a  number 
of  these  symbols,  whose  application  will 
be  needed  in  reading  the  drawings  following, 
and  in  drawing  the  problems  given. 

Plans. 

As  mentioned  in  Chapter  II  the  terms 
plan  and  front,  side  or  end  elevation  are  used 
instead  of  top  view,  front  view  and  side 
view.  The  plan  of  a  building  is  really  a 
horizontal  section  as  if  the  building  were  cut 
through  at  the  height  of  the  windows  and 
the  top  lifted  off.     This  cutting  plane  may  be 


47 


48 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


RJL/BBLE  JTONE  IM  JECTION 


CUT  JTONE   IM  JECTION 

^Mummnnm 


ROUGH  LUMBER- IMJECT I OM 

— n-^       II   -V       II     V n- 


FIMIJHED  LUMBER-  IN  JECTION 

/y>.«. ^ 


^ 


^ 


=? 


-A-- 


-/yv— 


BR.1CIC  IN  ELEVATIOIi.  Large  5cale.  BR.ICIC1N  ELEVATION,  5mall  Scale 


? 


-j;:^:  ::;•:;;•:  ;m-.- 


•■^^:v--f 


,  ^  .  ,  •A'" 


.-T 


Ly — I 
FRAME  WALL   IN  JECTION 


-^^^-Mr" '  ••    •'•  •  •'V  ••  •  • 


CEMEMT  AND  PLA5TERw  IN  JECTION 


EARTH   IN  JECTION 


COnCRETE    IN  JECTION 


CUT  JTONE   IN  ELEVATION 


WOOD    IN  ELEVATION 


BRICK.  IN   JECTION 


TERRACOTTA  WALL  IN  JECTION 


^     A    ^ 
4 

JTAOEJ   IN  DUAWING  CONCRETE  JYMBOU 


Ceiling  Outlet,  Electric  only  Numeraf 
in  center  indicates  number  of 
Standard  16  Cf  /rKondescsnt  Lamps. 

Ceiling  Outlet;  Combination  f  indicafra 
4-16  CP Standard  Incondrxarit 
Lamps  crnd  2  Gos  Lamps, 


Ceiling  Outlet      6a3  Only 


ROLLING  BAiUi   DOOR— 

DOUBLE    HUN6 


-CZD 


PL/MMK.    FRAME 


Drop  Cord  Oi/flef. 


Bracket  Outlet;  Electric  only  Numeraf 
in  center  irTdicafes  number  of 
Standard  ISCf  Incondascsnf  Lamps 

Brocket  Outlet :  Combination  g  indlcofs 
4-/6  C  P  Sfonc/and  Incandescent 
Lc?/7tps  crnc^  <?    Oi7S  Lam/:fs. 


BracAef  Ot/tlef:  Oas  only 


F/oor  Outlet ;  Numeral  in  center 
indicates  number  of  Standard 
16  C  P  Incandescent  Lamps 

LI J        riQ     Bell  Outlet,    p!    Tafephona  Outlet 


WINDOWJ 

Fig.  96. — Architectural  symbols. 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


49 


assumed  to  vary  in  height  at  different  points 
in  order  to  show  the  parts  of  the  plan  to  the 
best  advantage.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig. 
97  where  it  passes  through  the  fireplace, 
then  through  a  high  window. 

Plans  of  houses  and  larger  buildings  are 
usually  drawn  to  the  scale  of  ]/i"  =  1  ft. 
(sometimes  written  I"  =  4  ft.),  and  gen- 
erally one  view  only  is  placed  on  a  sheet. 
Drawings  of  smaller  structures  may  be  made 
to  3^^"  or  even  \"  scale,  and  all  the  views 
shown  on  one  sheet. 


''wall  section"  should  always  first  be  laid 
off  at  one  side,  in  order  to  determine  the 
heights  of  windows  from  the  floor,  heights 
of  floors,  cornice  lines,  etc.,  and  these  points 
projected  across  to  the  elevation.  This 
wall  section  is  often  left  on  the  finished 
drawing,  to  show  heights,  and  cornice 
construction. 

Sections. 

Vertical  sections  are  often   necessary  to 
show  interior  construction,  such  as  framing, 


Fig.  97. — Pictorial  illustration  of  a  "plan." 


In  planning  a  new  building  the  thinking 
and  scheming  should  be  done  with  the  aid 
of  rough  freehand  sketches,  using  single 
lines  for  the  walls,  before  a  scale  drawing 
is  started.  Cross  section  paper  is  often  used 
in  sketching,  to  aid  in  getting  correct  pro- 
portions. No  drawing  should  be  finished 
in  ink  until  all  the  sheets  are  complete  in 
pencil,  as  often  a  change  on  one  view  will 
necessitate  changing  several  others. 

Elevations. 

An  elevation  is  a  front  or  side  view  of  a 
building,  showing  the  exterior  appearance, 
and  is  of  use  in  indicating  the  location  of 
windows  and  doors,  glass  sizes,  heights  of 
floors,  etc.     In    drawing    an    elevation,    a 


stairways,  trusses  and  other  details.  Nu- 
merous examples  of  vertical  sections  are 
given  in  this  chapter.  The  terms  "longi- 
tudinal section"  and  "transverse"  or  "cross 
section"  are  sometimes  used  to  indicate 
that  the  section  is  taken  lengthwise  or 
crosswise. 

Dimensions. 

As  in  other  working  drawings,  dimensions 
and  notes  are  most  important.  The  rules 
for  dimensioning  given  on  page  29  should 
be  applied,  and  the  needs  of  the  builder 
always  kept  in  mind.  Thus  dimensions 
should  always  be  given  to  and  from  acces- 
sible points  so  that  they  may  be  laid  off 
accurately  and  without  computation. 


50 


AGRICXJLTURAL  DRAWING 


Dimensions  for  building  work  should 
be  given  in  even  feet  and  inches,  avoiding 
fractions  of  inches  as  far  as  possible,  except 
as  they  may  be  necessary  in  details. 

Commercial  and  stock  sizes  should  be  used 
as  far  as  possible  on  account  of  economy. 
For  example,  a  piece  of  glass  1"  X  10" 
costs  more  than  one  8"  X  10"  because 
the  latter  is  a  stock  size  while  the  former 
has  to  be  cut  to  order.  Some  tables  of 
commercial  sizes  for  reference  will  be 
found  on  page  112. 

Plan  of  the  Chapter. 

In  the  plan  of  this  chapter,  a  short  dis- 
cussion of  different  building  materials  and 
their  uses,  and  of  general  methods  of  pre- 
paring drawings,  will  be  followed  by  a  dis- 
cussion and  illustration  of  each  of  several 
typical  farm  structures,  representing  modern 
practice  in  design  and  construction;  the 
first  one  giving  complete  plans,  specifica- 
tions, bill  of  material,  and  estimate,  as  an 
example  to  be  followed.  The  application 
of  the  principles  explained  is  to  be  made  in 
the  problems  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 
Many  variations  of  the  problems  as  stated, 
will  suggest  themselves  to  the  student,  and 
it  is  hoped  that  the  varied  selection  of  ex- 
amples and  the  description  of  requirements 
and  present  practice  will  enable  him  to  adapt 
the  principles  and  make  dependable  working 
drawings  of  any  ordinary  structure  needed. 

Wood  Construction. 

By  far  the  greatest  number  of  farm  struc- 
tures are  at  present  built  of  wood.  The 
wood  used  is  largely  from  local  timber,  but 
its  gradual  diminution  in  many  sections,  is 
leading  to  the  use  of  southern  and  western 
lumber. 

"Wood  is  classified  in  a  general  way  com- 
mercially, as  hard  wood  and  soft  wood,  hard 
wood  being  from  deciduous  trees,  and  soft 
wood  from  cone-bearing  trees.  The  de- 
signer will  select,  and  specify  on  the  drawing, 


the  available  wood  best  suited  to  the  par- 
ticular purpose.  If  used  for  carrying  load 
or  stress,  the  sizes  needed  in  the  wood 
selected  must  be  figured  for  safe  load.  The 
table  of  comparative  strength  of  timbers 
and  the  loads  they  will  carry  given  on  page 
114,  will  be  of  use  in  these  computations. 

A  list  of  the  kinds  of  wood  used  for  differ- 
ent purposes,  somewhat  in  the  order  of 
their  desirability  and  availability,  is  given 
on  page  113. 

In  making  a  drawing  for  a  framed  struc- 
ture it  is  necessary  to  show  clearly  the  method 
of  construction.  The  sizes  and  lengths  of 
timbers  must  be  given  in  order  that  the 
quantities  may  be  taken  off,  and  to  prevent 
the  cutting  up  of  special  timbers  in  places 
where  shorter  lengths  have  been  designed. 
The  kinds  of  joints  intended  must  be 
shown,  and  if  necessary  supplemented  by 
details. 

In  large  construction,  such  as  barn  fram- 
ing, there  are  two  general  systems,  the 
braced,  pin-joint  frame,  made  of  heavy 
timbers,  and  the  plank  frame,  made  up 
of  two  inch  planking,  either  in  the  form  of 
the  ''plank  truss"  or  the  "balloon  frame." 

In  the  structures  which  follow,  these 
different  methods  of  framing  are  illustrated. 
The  braced  frame  is  shown  in  the  horse 
barn.  Fig.  116,  the  plank  truss  in  Fig.  114, 
and  the  "balloon  frame"  in  Figs.  117  and 
127. 

The  timber  frame  is  the  older  type  and  is 
very  substantial  and  reliable.  It  is  used  in 
localities  where  large  squared  timber  of 
good  quality  and  sufficient  length  is  readily 
available.  The  plank  frame  is  adapted 
to  sections  where  timber  is  purchased  or 
must  be  hauled  long  distances. 

Regarding  the  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  the  two  systems,  workmeil 
through  the  country  are  more  famiUar  with 
timber  framing.  Often  they  are  not  at  all 
familiar  with  plank  frame  construction.  In- 
stances of   collapse   are   numerous,   due  to 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


51 


faulty  workmanship  and  lack  of  information     the  time  saved  in  cutting  out  and  erection. 

regarding  plank  frame  requirements.  Also  fewer   men   are   required   for  raising. 

The  advantages  of  the  plank  frame  are     While  it  is  comparatively  simple  to  obtain 


FishFlaf-e 
Splice 


Gained  Joint 


Halved  Joint 


Balloon  FnnvePlale 


Fig.  98. — Joints  and  framing  details. 


BROK.Ef1    GABLE   ROOF         SAnBREL  OR.  CURB  ROOF 

Fig.  99. — Forms  of  roofs. 


MAN5AR.D    R.OOF 


that  it  is  constructed  at  some  saving  in  mow  space  partially  free  from  timbers  in 
timber  (perhaps  10%  of  complete  cost  of  pin-joint  construction,  it  is  possible  to  get 
barn).     A  greater  advantage  in  cost  is  in     a  mow  practically  free  from  obstruction  with 


52 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


the  plank  frame,  or  the  seh'-supporting  roof 
of  the  balloon  frame. 

In  deciding  upon  the  kind  of  framing  to 
be  used  these  advantages  and  disadvantages 
must  be  weighed  and  local  conditions  taken 
into  account. 


Fig.  100. — Comparative  diagram  of  roof  shapes. 

In  smaller  structures  the  stresses  from 
loads  and  wind  pressure  are  not  so  large  a 
factor,  and  the  framing  becomes  a  much 
simpler  problem  ttian  that  of  the  barn. 

A   few   examples   of   the   more    common 


Fig.  lOL — Fire-stopping  and  rat-proofing. 

joints  and  details  of  construction  used  in 
framing  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  98. 

Fig.  99  shows  some,  of  the 'different  forms 
of  roofs  used.  The  pitch,  or  slope  of  a 
gable  roof  as  usually  spoken  of,  is  the  ratio 


of  the  rise  to  the  span,  thus  when  the  height 
of  the  ridge  is  one-half  the  span  the  slope, 
evidently  45°,  is  called  "one-half  pitch." 


Roof 
Sheafhin^- 


Fig.  102. — Detail  of  frame  construction. 

Fig.  100  is  a  diagram  showing  the  com- 
parative mow  capacity  of  a  3^  pitch  and  3^ 
pitch  gable  roof,  and  a  gambrel  (or  curb) 
roof  of  the-  same  span. 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


53 


Fig.  101  illustrates  details  of  fire-stopping 
and  rat  proofing,  which  are  important  con- 
siderations in  plank  frame  construction,  par- 
ticularly so  in  granaries  and  residences. 

If  not  already  familiar  with  them,  the 
student  should  learn  the  builder's  names  of 
the  various  pieces  used  in  building,  as  joists. 


P 


F/at 
Battmns 


Ship  Lap    A>W  Cribbing 


Fbi^rTypas'Orop  Skiing  Berti  Siding, 


Fig.  103. — Forms  of  siding. 

studs,  sills,  girders,  ribbons,  plates  and 
rafters.  These  names  are  given  on  Figs. 
102  and  115  and  are  used  throughout  the 
chapter.  , 

The  frame  of  a  wooden  structure  is  en- 
closed by  covering  it  in  various  ways,  by 
siding  or  weather-boarding.  Different  forms 
of  weather  boarding  are  shown  in  Fig.  103. 


structures  is  occasioning  a  steadily  increasing 
use  of  concrete  as  a  building  material.  It  is 
a  material  practically  indestructible,  and  with 
good  design  and  careful  supervision  makes  a 
most  desirable  and  easily  erected  structure. 

Concrete  is  made  by  mixing  cement,  sand, 
and  gravel  or  crushed  stone  in  proportions 
to  suit  various  classes  of  work.  It  is  put  in 
place  by  pouring  or  tamping  it  into  pre- 
viously prepared  forms  or  molds. 

Portland  cement  as  manufactured  by  the 
leading  companies,  is  a  reliable  material, 
although  for  important  engineering  struc- 
tures every  shipment  is  tested.  Poor  stor- 
age, that  is  storage  in  damp  places,  will 
injure  the  best  of  cements.  It  is  thus  well 
to  examine  it  to  be  sure  that  no  lumps  are 
present.  If  lumpy  cement  must  be  used,  throw 
out  all  lumps,  not  easily  crushed  with  the 
fingers. 

Sand  should  be  free  from  vegetable  and 
earthy  matter,  although  a  small  percentage 
of  clay  is  not  injurious.     In  general  it  should 


S/foOid/hd  Reinforcement  - 


This  tank  has  a  capacity   ^ 
of  2  barrels  foreact^  foot   y). 
in  lengthi^  ntien  maite  the 
tvie/th  shoirn. 


1    Clinton  Wine  Clofh 
Imdfr  Fi//-S" 


1  toj^  ll  Mortarr.  


Reinforcemei 


W- 


This  cfimension  is  goverrjed  ty 
I  the  character  of  the  soil. 


i^'DraJn^Tile 

Fig.  104. — Concrete  water  tank. 


''•:i^C-'-' ^Cinder  or  6rafe/  Fill 
'"'"-     Tamp  lYe// 


Concrete.  be  rather  coarse,  or  a  mixture  of  fine  and 

The  growing  scarcity  of  timber  and  the     coarse  particles.     Gravel  and  crushed  stone 
increasing  demand  for  fireproof  and  sanitary     should  be  fairly  clean  and  varied  in  size. 


54 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


When  concrete  is  used  in  beams,  tall  posts, 
unsupported  floor  slabs,  or  walls  sustaining 
pressures,  it  has  to  be  reinforced  with  steel  or 
iron  rods,  wires  or  wire  netting.  The  advice 
of  a  competent  engineer  should  be  sought 
for  such  structures.  Concrete  is  an  ex- 
cellent material  when  properly  used,  but 
the  large  number  of  failures  recorded  shows 
that  one  can  not  be  too  careful  in  mixing  and 
applying  it. 

The  table  given  on  page  115  will  serve  as 
a  guide  as  to  the  proportions  to  be  used  in 
the  various  forms  of  construction,  and  also 
the  amounts  of  cement,  sand  and  stone  in 
each  cubic  yard. 

Two  distinct  things  must  be  considered 
in  drawing  concrete  structures,  first,  the 
representation  of  the  structure  itself,  and 
second  the  construction  of  the  forms.  This 
latter  is  often  a  separate  problem  as  the 
forms  must  be  designed  so  as  to  be  set  up 
practically  and  economically,  and  be  strong 
enough  to  support  the  weight  of  the  con- 
crete until  it  sets.  Thus  the  drawings  for 
concrete  structures  are  somewhat  different 
from  those  of  any  other  kind. 

The  section  of  a  water  tank  shown  in 
Fig.  104  is  an  example.  Notice  the  use  of 
the  symbol  for  concrete  in  this  and  the  fol- 
lowing figures. 

Brick. 

One  of  the  oldest  known  building  ma- 
terials, brick  has  had  and  will  continue  to 
maintain  a  preeminent  place  for  durability 
and  beauty.  It  is  used  throughout  the  entire 
country,  but  more  extensively  in  sections 
where  brick  works  are  located,  as  the  cost 
of  transportation  greatly  increases  the  ex- 
pense of  the  material. 

In  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a 
great  advance  made  in  the  quality  and  tex- 
ture, or  appearance,  of  face  brick  and  there 
is  more  beautiful  brick  work  now  being 
built  than  ever  before.  Incidentally,  the 
smooth  pressed  brick  formerly  used  for  fine 


work  has  gone  entirely  out  of  vogue,  being 
replaced  by  rougher  texture  face  bricks  of  a 


t>-te>ti'.-ii-/;Sii/»V*a'K  ..*^>'«'.'f^*fc.Ai?":>J?V^"'iV  '¥j&tfS^s45£*i£?5?'i»^l>^  ri^^^^«'<yJi&^3S^^fiS^ 

•^^p:*^  »teMt  '^^a^i  l^^^S 

s<i«WJ«33yKSW<%i5  S.«Sfet5!fAlRa*;Sw  »S'.->»?r^a'U^>;^S  iS-ir^SSSfFVFSSW 

Fig.  105. — American  bond. 

great  variety  of  surfaces  and  colors,  giving 

much    more  artistic   and    beautiful   effects. 

The  prospective  builder  expecting  to  use 


Fig.  106.— Flemish  bond. 

brick,  will  inform  himself  in  regard  to  the 
kinds  available  in  his  section,  and  the  prices 
of  common  brick  and  face  brick.     In  draw- 


Fig.  107.— English  bond. 


ing  brick  structures  there  are  several  points 
with  which  he  should  be  familiar.  The 
symbols  for  brick  in  section  and  elevation 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


55 


are  shown  in  Fig.  96.  The  sizes  of  brick 
vary  considerably  in  different  locaUties  and 
for  different  kinds,  an  average  size  is  23^^ 
X  4  X  8.     For  careful  designing  he  should 


Fig.   108.— Dutch  bond. 

know  accurately  the  size  of  brick  to  be  used. 
Brick  walls  are  drawn  8"  and  12"  thick,  or 
as  they  are  usually  termed,  9"  wall  and 
13"    wall.     Face  brick  are  laid  usually  in 


English  cross  bond,  Fig.  108.  These  form 
pleasing  variations  from  the  American  bond 
but  cost  a  little  more  for  laying.  Where 
resistance  to  heat  is  necessary,  fire  brick 
should  be  used. 

Stone. 

Stone  is  not  so  generally  common  as  a  wall 
building  material,  except  in  certain  com- 
paratively small  sections  where  local  stone 
is  plentiful,  and  even  for  foundations  it  is 
being  largely  replaced  by  concrete.  Some- 
times it  is  used  for  picturesque  effect,  field 
stones  often  being  used  for  the  purpose. 

Stone  sills  and  caps  are  in  general  use, 
and  should  be  dimensioned  to  come  out 
even  with  the  brick  courses. 

Stone  walls  are  from  16"  to  24"  in  thick- 
ness. Fig.  96  shows  the  symbols  used  for 
stone  in  section  and  elevation,  and  Fig,  109 
illustrates  different  forms  of  laying  up. 


Fig,  109. — Random  and  coursed  rubble. 

common  or  American  bond,  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  105.  Other  forms  are  Flemish 
bond.  Fig.  106,  English  bond.  Fig.  107  and 
Dutch  bond,  or  as  it  is  sometimes  called,     exterior  of  a  building  and  finished  either 


Fig.  110. — Stucco  on  hollow  tile. 

Stucco. 

Stucco  is  a  mixture  of  cement  and  sand 
with  a  little  lime,  applied  as  plaster  to  the 


56 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


smooth  or  oftener  "  rough-cast."  It  is  some- 
times put  on  wood  lath,  oftener  on  metal 
lath,  and  best  of  all  on  hollow  tile.  As  a 
building  material  it  is  becoming  increas- 
ingly popular  on  account  of  its  appearance 
and  durability.  Old  brick  buildings  are 
sometimes  resurfaced  by  adding  a  coat  of 
stucco,  as  it  adheres  perfectly  if  properly 
applied. 

Hollow  tile  with  stucco  finish  is  un- 
doubtedly one  of  the  coming  building  ma- 
terials. It  makes  a  dry  wall,  is  light, 
fireproof  and  easily  constructed.  A  sec- 
tional view  of  hollow  tile  construction 
(from  the  National  Fireproofing  Company) 
is  shown  in  Fig.  110. 


Roofing  Materials. 

Wood  shingles  are  more  commonly  used 
than  any  other  roof  covering.  They  are 
made  of  cypress,  redwood  and  cedar,  and 
various  color  effects  may  be  obtained  by  the 
use  of  shingle  stains. 

Slate  makes  a  desirable  roofing  material. 
Various  colors  and  grades  are  on  the 
market.  It  is  heavier  than  shingles,  hence 
the  roof  must  be  framed  to  carry  it.  The 
cost  is  somewhat  greater  than  for  shingle 
roof. 

Roofing  tile  is  used  principally  for  large 
buildings.  It  is  heavier  per  square  than 
slate,  costs  more,  and  requires  sheathing 
and  paper  under  it. 

Composition  roofing  of  various  kinds  and 
trade  names  is  very  common.  It  is  easily 
applied  and  the  better  grades  are  very 
durable. 

Galvanized  roofing,  made  of  galvanized 
iron  or  steel  is  coming  into  general  use. 
It  comes  in  lengths  6,  8,  10  and  12  feet, 
and  the  framing  should  be  built  to  suit. 
It  has  the  advantage  of  being  cheap  and 
easily  put  on,  but  would  not  be  used  on 
residences  on  account  of  its  appearance 
and  its  heat  absorption. 


Preparing  Plans 

In  preparing  plans  for  any  building  the 
designer  will  go  through  the  following 
operations: 

(1 )  Make  preliminary  sketches . 

(2)  Carry  through  the  general  drawings,  plans, 
elevations  and  sections. 

(3)  Make  detail  drawings  of  such  parts  as  require 
additional  explanation. 

(4)  Take  off  the  quantities  required  of  each 
material  and  tabulate  in  a  bill  of  material. 

(5)  Write  specifications. 

(6)  Estimate  the  cost. 

To  illustrate  these  steps,  the  design  of 
a  dairy  barn,  including  drawings,  specifica- 
tions and  bill  of  material  has  been  carried 
through,  commencing  on  page  57,  and  will 
serve  as  a  guide  for  other  buildings. 

Dairy  Barn 

With  the  sale  of  milk  regulated  by  health 
authorities,  and  the  successful  attempt  to 
stop  filth  at  the  source,  the  present-day  dairy 
barn  has  come  to  be  a  clean,  well  lighted 
and  well  ventilated  structure. 

The  location  must  be  well  drained,  or  so 
situated  as  to  make  good  drainage  possible. 
The  barn  should  be  faced  if  possible  so  that 
the  yard  is  at  the  south  or  east.  Ample 
storage  for  feed  should  be  provided,  and 
bedding  must  not  be  overlooked.  Provi- 
sion must  be  made  for  the  removal  of  manure 
at  least  once  daily,  to  a  pit  required  to  be 
at  least  50  feet  from  the  barn,  but  better 
if  placed  100  feet  away.  The  floors  should 
be  of  Some  water  tight,  non-absorbent 
material.  Concrete  fills  this  requirement, 
but  is  objected  to  by  some  persons.  The, 
objections  may  be  overcome  by  making 
the  floors  with  sand  or  float  finish,  and  by 
flooring  the  stalls  with  cork  brick  or  creosoted 
wood  blocks,  or  by  using  a  plank  overlay 
in  them  over  the  concrete. 

The  lighting  should  be  well  distributed, 
and  at  least  4  feet  of  glass  provided  for 
each  animal.     There  should  be  at  least  500 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


57 


cubic  feet  of  space  allowed  for  each  animal  to  prevent  dust,  dirt  and  seed  from  sifting 

and  in  addition  flue  ventilation  should  be  through.     Hog   houses    or    chicken    houses 

installed  of  such  capacity  that  each  animal  must  not  be  located  within  100  feet  of  the 

will  have  25   square  inches   of   flue   area.  barn. 


^2*8 


Fig.  111. — Preliminary  sketch  of  dairy  barn. 


Flues  with  a  cross  sectional  area  of  less  than  In  planning,  the  following  data   may  be 

200  square  inches  are  not  very  efficient.  used.      Small  cows  require  stall  space  3  ft. 

Where  hay  or  straw  is  to  be  stored  above  wide,  4'-6"  long;  large  cows  from  3'-6"  to 

the  stable,  the  floor  must  be  tightly  ceiled  4'-0"  stall  width  and  5'-0"  to  5-6"  in  length. 


58 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


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FARM  STRUCTURES 


59 


60 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


61 


62 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Mangers  may  be  from  2'-6"  to  3'-0"  wide. 
Feeding  alleys  should  not  be  less  than  3 
feet  wide.  Litter  alleys  should  have  a 
minimum  width  of  4  feet,  and  this  increased 
to  8  feet  if  a  spreader  is  to  be  driven  through. 
Gutters  may  range  from  12"  to  22"  in  width 
and  vary  from  5"  to  16"  in  depth.  An 
average  gutter  is  shown  in  detail  in  Fig. 
115. 

Floors  and  stalls  should  slope  toward  the 
gutter  from  3^^"  to  3^^"  per  foot.  A  slope  of 
1"  in  10  feet  will  be  sufficient  for  the  flow  of 
the  gutter. 

In  figuring  storage  space,  calculate  on  the 
average  basis  that  each  animal  will  require 
the  following  amounts  per  feeding  season: 
4  tons  of  ensilage,  2  tons  of  hay,  1000  lbs. 
of  grain  or  other  concentrates,  and  2  tons  of 
straw  bedding.  Data  regarding  the  space 
occupied  by  various  materials  is  given  in 
Chapter  VII. 

A  careful  study  of  the  dairy  score  card 
given  on  page  116  is  advised.  This  may 
be  used  in  checking  up  a  set  of  plans,  or 
in  scoring  an  existing  barn  to  see  if  it  con- 
forms to  the  requirements.  Different  states 
have  similar  score  cards,  which  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  State  Dairy  and  Food 
Commissioner. 

Plans  for  a  Dairy  Bam. 

Beginning  with  Fig.  Ill  illustrating  the 
preliminary  freehand  sketch,  a  complete 
set  of  drawings  for  a  dairy  barn  of  modern 
design  to  accommodate  24  Holstein  cows 
and  providing  for  bull,  calves,  and  hospital 
cases,  is  shown.  Silos  and  hay  capacity 
have  been  estimated  for  a  year's  feed. 

Fig.  112  is  the  plan  of  this  barn.  Fig.  113 
the  side  elevation,  and  Fig.  114  the  end 
elevation  and  sections,  showing  that  the 
construction  is  the  plank  truss  type.  The 
plank  truss  frame  is  usually  called  the 
"Shawver  barn,"  as  it  was  first  developed 
by  Mr.  John  L.  Shawver. 

Fig.  115  is  a  sheet  of  details  showing  floor 


and  manger  construction,  window  detail 
and  framing  joints.  This  sheet,  incidentally, 
illustrates  the  advantageous  use  of  pictorial 
drawing  for  details  of  construction. 

Specifications. 

Accompanying  the  drawings  for  any 
structure  should  be  the  specifications,  con- 
taining a  definite,  itemized  statement  re- 
garding the  materials  and  methods  of 
construction  required.  In  a  very  simple 
structure  it  is  possible  to  include  all  of  this 
information  as  notes  on  the  drawing,  but 
in  such  a  structure  as  a  barn  or  residence, 
they  should  be  typewritten,  under  a  separate 
cover  and  the  different  items  grouped  under 
appropriate  headings. 

After  the  introductory  head,  specifications 
always  contain  first,  what  is  known  as  the 
general  condition  clause,  covering  all  the 
work  and  forming  part  of  the  contract. 
This  clause  should  therefore  be  worded 
carefully  so  that  in  case  of  dispute,  its  mean- 
ing can  not  be  questioned. 

The  general  condition  clause  is  followed  by 
specific  clauses  for  the  different  classes  of 
work  and  material,  usually  about  in  the 
order  of  their  occurrence  in  the  progress 
of  construction. 

The  following  specifications  for  the  dairy 
barn  illustrated  may  serve  as  an  example  of 
the  general  form  used  for  such  structures. 
These  are  short  and  concise,  but  sufficient 
for  full  explanation  of  the  requirements. 
Architects'  forms  for  residences  and  public 
buildings  are  much  longer,  particularly  in 
the  general  condition  clause. 

Specifications  for  Dairy  Barn. 

Specifications  of  materials  and  workmanship 
required  for  the  erection  and  completion  of  a  frame 
dairy  barn  for  Mr.  George  W.  Jones,  Jefferson 
County,  Ohio.  Thos.  P.  Smith,  . 

Architect. 
General. 

All  materials  shall  be  of  best  grade  and  no  sub- 
stitutions shall  be  allowed  in  place  of  material  here- 
inafter specified,   except  on  written  order  of  the 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


63 


owner  and  architect.  All  work  must  be  done  in 
the  best  possible  manner  by  skilled  workmen. 
Work  not  done  according  to  the  manner  specifically 
stated,  must  at  the  discretion  of  the  architect,  be 
taken  out  and  properly  constructed,  all  expense 
attached  for  such  work  and  materials  to  be  borne 
by  the  contractor. 

All  rejected  material  must  be  removed  from  the 
premises  within  24  hours  after  notification. 

Any  changes  from  the  drawings  or  specifications, 
or  any  extras,  are  to  be  agreed  upon  in  writing 
before  being  made. 


weighing  40  lbs.  per  square.  All  trim  and  finishing 
lumber  to  be  clear  white  pine. 

Slate  shall  be  No.  1  grade  of  (black  Bangor)  slate. 

Gutters,  spouting  and  flashing  shall  be  No.  24 
gauge  galvanized  iron,  painted  with  two  coats  red 
lead  and  linseed  oil  paint.  All  exterior  wood  work 
shall  be  primed  with  pure  boiled  linseed  oil  and  best 
quality  white  lead.  Two  additional  coats  of  pure 
linseed  oil  and  pure  white  lead  paint  shall  be  applied 
as  soon  as  consistent  with  good  results. 

All  hardware  and  stable  fittings  to  be  furnished 
by  the  owner,  and  set  in  place  by  the  contractor. 


Excavation. 

The  excavation  shall  be  made  according  to  lines 
and  levels  set  by  the  architect,  and  all  trenches 
dressed  smooth.  Tile  drains  shall  be  laid  as  directed 
by  the  architect,  tile  being  furnished  by  the  owner. 
The  laying  of  such  tile  is  to  be  paid  for  by  the  owner 
at  a  rate  not  to  exceed  30  cents  for  each  lineal  rod. 

'  Concrete. 

All  concrete  shall  be  composed  of  Portland  cement, 
clean  sand,  and  crushed  stone  ranging  in  size  from 
3^"  to  13^".  The  proportions  shall  be  as  follows; 
for  all  piers  and  walls  below  grade,  1  part  Portland 
cement,  2  parts  sand  and  4  parts  stone.  All  floors, 
mangers,  gutters  and  other  concrete  work  not 
•included  in  piers,  foundation  and  walls,  shall  be 
one  course  work  with  1  part  cement,  2  parts  sand 
and  3  parts  stone.  All  cement,  sand  and  stone  will 
be  inspected  and  approved  by  the  architect.  A 
batch  mixer  must  be  used  and  each  batch  turned 
not  less  than  25  times  after  the  addition  of  water. 
The  mixture  must  be  wet  enough  to  fill  all  forms  and 
trenches  and  always  show  a  film  of  water  after 
reasonable  tamping. 

All  forms  shall  be  water-tight  and  made  of 
material  strong  enough  to  prevent  bulging.  Forms 
for  work  above  grade  must  be  of  dressed  lumber 
and  leave  the  walls  smooth. 

All  concrete  shall  be  placed  within  20  minutes 
after  mixing,  and  tamped  free  from  voids. 

Retempering  of  concrete  will  not  be  permitted. 

Timber. 

All  timber  shall  be  well  seasoned.  All  framing 
lumber  shall  be  clear  grade,  long  leaf  yellow  pine 
free  from  shakes  and  winds.  Siding  shall  be  clear 
cypress  (red  cedar,  redwood  or  white  pine).  Mow 
flooring,  tongue  and  grooved  yellow  pine  (hemlock, 
fir  or  local  wood)  laid  tightly  in  painted  joints. 
Roof  sheathing  to  be  No.  1  hemlock  laid  close  and 
covered    with    good    quality    tarred    roofing    felt, 


Bill  of  Material 

A  complete  bill  of  all  the  materials  re- 
quired in  the  construction  would  be  needed 
for  ordering  and  estimating.  Concrete  piers 
and  walls  are  figured  for  their  cubic  con- 
tents, and  reduced  to  cubic  yards.  Concrete 
floors  are  estimated  in  square  feet  (or 
square  yards),  excavation  in  cubic  yards, 
lumber  in  board  measure,  slate,  roofing  felt 
and  paint,  in  squares  (100  sq.  ft.)  and  hard- 
ware, stable  fittings,  etc.,  from  dealers' 
prices  obtained.  Lumber  should  be  figured 
in  length  to  the  nearest  even  foot  over,  and 
in  tongue  and  grooved  flooring  and  ceiling 
}4  more  than  the  total  should  be  added. 

The  bill  of  lumber  of  the  superstructure 
of  the  dairy  barn  is  here  given  as  a  guide. 


Bill  of  Materials,  Superstructure. 

Sill 2  X  10  -  384  linear  ft.   =  640  ft.  B.M, 

Girders  2  X  12  -  480  linear  ft.  =  960  ft.  B.M. 
Posts  .  .4  -  8  X  8  X  4'-0"         =    86  ft.  B.M, 

or  oak. 
6  Trusses 

Size  No.      Length    Ft.   B.M. 

Posts 2X8         24       18'-0"        576 

Main  Brace ...  2  X  12  12  28'-0"  672 
Purlin  Support  2  X  10  24  28'-0"  1120 
Short  Brace ...  2  X  8         12       14'-0"       224 

(cut  into  4'-4", 
5'-0"  and  3'-2") 
Foot  pieces 
(Foundation  & 

Ribbon) 2X8        36        6'-0"       288 

Purlin  Strut...  2  X  6        24         4'-0"  72 

Purlin  Braces.  .2X6  22  8'-0"  176 
Collar  Beams.  .2X6        31         6'-0"       186 


y-p- 
yp- 
yp- 


Ma- 
terial 

yp- 
yp- 
y-p- 
yp- 


y-p- 
y-p- 
yp- 
yp. 


64 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Size  No.      Length   Ft.    B.M.  ^^?^ 

Intermediate 

Posts 2X6         18       18'-0"       324    y.p. 

Inter.        Posts 

(above       end 

plate) 2X6  8       14'-0"        112    y.p. 

Inter.  Braces.  .  2  X  6         28       14'-0"       392    y.p. 


Girts  (Nail) .    . 

2X6 

68 

12'-0" 

816 

yp- 

2X6 

4 

14'-0" 

56 

y-p. 

2X8 

6 

12'-0" 

96 

yp- 

Ribbon 

2X6 

10 

12'-0" 

120 

yp- 

Joists 

2  X  10 

118 

12'-0" 

2360 

yp. 

Joists  at  truss . 

2X8 

18 

12'-0" 

288 

yp- 

Bridging 

1  X  3 

432'  lin- 
eal 

108 

y-p- 

Rafters  (short) 

2X6 

62 

12'-0" 

744 

yp- 

(long) 

2X8 

62 

16'-0" 

1224 

yp- 

Lookouts        & 

filler 

2X4 

166'-0" 
lineal 

112 

yp- 

Hay  Pole 

4X6 

1 

16'-0" 

32 

yp- 

Plate 

2X8 

20 

12'-0" 

320 

yp- 

Purlin < 

2  X  10 

20 

12'-0" 

400 

y-p- 

2X4 

10 

12'-0" 

80 

y-p- 

Studs  (short  at 

lower  floor)...  2  X  6         42       12'-0"        504    y.p. 
„        .        f  1  X  12  X  18'-0"  3800  ft.  B.M. 
Covering  |  j  ><  12  X  16'-0"     800  ft.  B.M.  "yP^"'" 
Battens.  ..1X3       3896  lin-  975  ft.  B.M.  cypress 

eal  ft. 
Roof  Sheathing— 3840  ft.  B.M.   1"  X  10"  random 

length. 
Slate— 16"  X  10"      39  squares. 

Windows — 

14    frames    complete    for    10"  X  12".     8    Light 
check  rail   windows,  4  double  as  per  details  on 
Sheet  4,  6  single  windows.     56  sash  wts.  C.I. 
14  check  rail  windows  8  Lt.  10"  X  12". 
4-4  Lt.  barn  sash  10"  X  12"  for  gable. 
10-6  Lt.  barn  sash  10  X  12  complete  with  frames 
24  lineal  ft.  track  and  hangers  for  gable  doors. 
400  lineal  feet  1X6  white  pine  trim. 
2 -cupolas  to  be  built  at  mill. 
Floor — 2400  sq.   ft.    superficial   area,  IJ4"  X  6" 

T.  &G. 
Ceiling  2400  sq.  ft.  1  X  4  T.  and  G. 

Estimate. 

The  estimated  cost  of  this  barn,  without 
silos  and  feed  room,  is  $4200.  One  thousand 
dollars,  as  an  average  estimate,  may  be 
added  for  these  items. 


Data  used  as  a  basis  in  determining  the 
estimate  will  be  found  under  "estimating," 
on  page  119. 

The  Horse  Barn 

The  essentials  for  a  good  horse  barn  are, 
convenience  of  location,  good  drainage  in 
all  directions,  convenient  interior  arrange- 
ment, plenty  of  light,  and  ample  storage 
for  hay  and  grain. 

The  walls  may  be  of  a  single  thickness  of 
barn  boards,  if  they  are  tight  and  draft 
proof.  The  floor  may  be  of  plank,  tamped 
clay,  concrete  or  cork  brick.  Clay  is  some- 
times considered  as  the  best  floor,  but  con- 
crete has  proven  to  be  satisfactory  and  sani- 
tary; usually  however,  a  removable  plank 
overlay  is  used  in  stalls  in  connection  with 
the  concrete  floor.  Brick  with  plank  overlay 
is  also  used  sometimes.  Cork  brick  makes 
an  ideal  floor,  being  water  proof  and  resiUent, 
but  the  initial  cost  is  high  (about  $55.00 
per  thousand).  It  should  be  laid  on  con- 
crete foundation. 

The  ceiling  should  be  at  least  eight  feet 
high  in  the  clear,  and  nine  feet  would  be  a 
better  height.  Seven  hundred  to  one  thou- 
sand cubic  feet  of  space  should  be  allowed  for 
each  animal. 

•  Single  stalls  are  made  from  four  feet  to 
six  feet  in  width.  Five  feet  is  comfortable 
for  a  heavy  horse.  Double  stalls  are  usually 
eight  feet  wide.  The  length  of  stalls  is  nine 
feet,  six  inches  including  mangers.  Box  stalls 
range  in  size  from  8  X  10  to  10  X  12  feet. 

An  average  manger  is  two  feet  wide  and 
three  feet  six  inches  high.  The  side  toward 
the  animal  should  slope  inward  from  four 
inches  to  six  inches,  to  prevent  injury  to 
the  knees. 

Feed  alleys,  if  used,  should  be  at  least  three 
feet  wide.  The  litter  alley  should  be  at  least 
four  feet  wide,  to  allow  a  medium  horse  to 
back  from  the  stall  comfortably.  If  a 
manure  spreader  is  to  be  driven  through, 
eight  feet  will  be  necessary. 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


65 


66 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


67 


68 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Windows  with  sash  tilting  inward  at  the 
top,  make  a  good  means  of  ventilation. 
"When  ventilating  flues  aroused,  thirty  square 
inches  should  be  provided  for  each  horse. 

Stall  partitions  should  be  very  solidly 
constructed  for  at  least  five  feet  in  height. 
Some  prefer  to  build  them  six  feet.  A  five 
foot  solid  partition  surmounted  by  steel 
bars  or  heavy  wire  mesh  has  the  advantage 
that  it  allows  the  horses  to  see  each  other 
and  does  not  shut  the  light  from  interior 
stalls. 

The  horse  barn  shown  in  Fig.  116  may  be 
studied  as  an  example  of  the  application  of 
the  features  mentioned  in  a  compact  and 
practical  design.  The  plan  is  a  familiar 
one  in  that  the  horses  are  fed  from  the  main 
drive- way.  Solid  drop  swing  doors  are 
provided  on  the  manger  fronts  so  that  in 
cold  weather  the  stable  maybe  closed  tightly. 
The  size  and  spacing  of  the  windows  is 
designed  for  ample  light  and  ventilation. 

A  concrete  floor  extends  throughout  the 
length  of  the  barn.  In  the  stable  proper 
the  stall  floors  and  alley  slope  toward  a 
shallow  gutter  at  the  rear  of  the  stall. 
The  stalls  are  floored  with  plank  over  the 
concrete. 

The  stall  partitions  are  of  concrete  rein- 
forced with  ^^"  round  rods  extending  above 
the  partition  and  forming  a  grating  up  to 
the  ceiling.  The  stalls  are  of  different  widths 
to  accommodate  horses  of  varying  sizes. 
Three  box  stalls  are  provided. 

A  detail  of  a  horse  stall  is  shown  in  Fig. 
118. 

The  frame  is  the  pin  joint  timber  frame 
type  and  is  constructed  so  that  the  mow 
space  is  free  from  cross  beams,  thus  allowing 
the  use  of  the  newer  type  of  hay  slings. 
The  space  above  the  drive-way  in  the  lean-to 
may  be  used  to  advantage  for  the  storage 
of  hay  or  grain.  This  barn  would  be  built 
by  raising  the  two  longitudinal  bents  first, 
this  construction  permitting  a  more  econom- 
ical arrangement  of  floor  joists. 


The  General  Purpose  Barn 

On  farms  where  the  separate  highly 
specialized  dairy  or  horse  barns  are  not 
required,  a  combination  general  purpose 
barn  for  cattle,  horses,  and  possibly  other 
farm  animals,  as  well  as  for  the  storage  of 
feed,  etc.,  is  used.  When  this  barn  contains 
a  dairy  stable  it  is  necessary  to  observe  the 
laws  in  force  for  dairy  barns,  with  the  addi- 
tion that  there  must  be  provided  either  a 
tight  partition  between  horse  and  cow 
stables,  or  a  clear  space  of  twelve  feet  be- 
tween the  cowg  and  the  horses. 

A  common  form  of  general  purpose  barn 
now  in  use  has  attached  to  it  a  large  storage 
shed  for  straw,  the  first  story  of  which  is 
used  as  a  covered  and  sheltered  barn  yard. 
This  barn  yard  should  be  paved  with  con- 
crete or  brick.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
paving  of  such  a  yard  will  pay  for  itself 
within  two  years  in  the  value  of  the  manure 
saved. 

An  example  of  another  form  of  general 
purpose  barn  is  shown  in  Figs.  117  and  118, 
which  give  the  plan,  elevation  and  section 
of  an  L  shaped  barn  of  the  balloon  framed 
and  self-supporting  roof  type  of  construc- 
tion. This  barn  is  designed  to  face  with  the 
internal  angle  of  the  L  to  the  south,  so  as 
to  secure  a  maximum  of  sunlight  throughout 
the  day.  Both  the  rolling  doors  and  the 
open  run  between  the  horse  stable  and  the 
milking  stalls  comply  with  the  law  in  effec- 
tually separating  the  two  stables. 

The  cow  stalls  are  designed  to  be  used  for 
the  feeding  of  concentrates,  and  for  milk- 
ing only.  Roughage  is  to  be  fed  in  the  open 
run,  where  the  cows  are  confined  except 
during  milking  time. 

Ample  storage  space  has  been  provided 
for  hay,  straw,  grain  and  silage. 

The  Swine  House 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  swine 
houses  in  general  use,  the  individual  cot 
and  the  colony  house. 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


69 


The  individual  house  is  used  where  one 
sow  and  her  Utter  are  to  be  kept  apart  from 
other  swine.  It  is  usually  built  upon  skids 
so  that  it  may  be  moved  from  time  to  time 
for  sanitary  reasons  or  to  change  the  run. 
A  common  and  inexpensive  cot  is  shown  in 


Windour  in  rear 
/Z's<fuare 


Door  14'* 30' Make  of,  slab 
/i  Z'on  wirt.  Svspend  of  iop  to 
sw/nf(retjy 


Fig.  119. — "A-type"  individual  hog  cot. 

Fig.  119.     Fig.  120  shows  other  models  of 
the  same  general  class. 

Fig.  121  shows  a  unit  plan  and  sectional 
elevation,  together  with  some  details,  of  a 
colony  hog  house.  The  half-monitor  roof 
shown  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  give  a  two 
row  hog  house  sunshine  on  both  sides  of  the 
alley.  It  will  be  seen  that,  to  be  effective, 
the  house  must  face  with  windows  to  the 
south.  The  plan  shows  two  units  of  2 
pens  each.  The  house  may  be  made  of 
any  desired  length  by  adding  the  required 
number  of  units.  A  good  scheme  to  follow 
for  a  large  plant  would  consist  of  a  central 
feed  storage  and  mixing  house  with  principal 
axis  running  north  and  south,  with  wings  of 
five  units  each  extending  to  the  east  and 
west  respectively.  This  would  make  an 
establishment  of  20  pens  and  feed  house  that 
would  be  very  well  arranged  to  save  time 


and  labor  in  feeding  and  at  the  same  time 
practically  divide  the  herd,  which  might  be 
desirable  in  time  of  epidemic. 

Sunshine  tables  are  published  in  Farmer's 
Bulletin  No.  438  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  enabling  one  to  build  the  house 
so  as  to  take  advantage  of  the  sun  in  his 
locality  during  the  months  from  January  to 
June  inclusive.  An  abbreviation  of  this 
table  will  be  found  on  page  117,  Chapter 
seven. 

Fig.  122  shows  two  other  types  of  house,  A, 
with  a  full  monitor  roof,  which  is  best  when 
necessary  to  have  the  house  running  north 
and  south ;  and  B,  for  a  house  facing  south, 
with  a  single  row  of  pens. 

A  dipping  vat  is  connection  with  the  hog 
house  may  be  made  30''  wide  at  the  top  and 
from  18"  to  20"  wide  at  the  bottom.  The 
tank  should  start  with  one  vertical  end,  and 


Wisconsin  Type  with  Shade 


htyar 

Fig.  120. — Individual  hog  cots. 

continue  with  a  level  bottpm  3-0"  deep  and 
6-0"  long.  A  slope  7-0"  long  to  the  level 
of  the  floor  should  be  provided,  to  aid  the 
hogs  in  getting  out.     A  tilting  board  at  the 


70 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


/ 

/ingle  of  Sun's  fhys 
for  March  1st  ot 
Latif-ude  40° N. 


'Kj^' fe  Cinder  a' OrcTvel  Fill  ^     '  '-^•''^^^ 


-^10^ 


Bracket  of 


5ECTION 


'An 


F^lnforcemenf 
f/?od 


ForFrame 
GUARDRAIL  SUGGESTIONS 


PLAN  SHOWING  TWO  UNITS 


TiesofNo.9 
Wire.  Space 
12" a  pari 


T% 


4''- 


'-ir 


'-H-pTm^  tTTTTTTi  s^^  ^^^  rzwm_ 


DETAILS  OF  MAT 


/7?(9/Vr  ELEVATION  OF  PEN  o^^«^. ,  ^^  ^rv,,  ,^^ 

SECTION  OF  Tf?OUGH 

Fig.  121. — Swine  house,  colony  type  with  half -monitor  roof. 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


71 


perpendicular  end  is  used  for  throwing  the 
animals  into  the  dip. 


A  B 

Fig.  122. — Alternate  forms  of  colony  swine  house. 

The  Sheep  Barn 

The  requirements  for  sheep  sheltering  are 
few  so  long  as  the  sheep  are  kept  dry  and 
out  of  drafts,  hence  the  location  should  be 
well  drained,  and  while  the  shed  may  be 
open    toward    the    south    or    southeast,    it 


provided  for  dividing  the  space  into  tem- 
porary pens. 

Feed  storage  should  be  provided  for  as 
follows : 

2  to  4  lbs.  ensilage,  4  lbs.  of  hay,  and  2  to 
3  lbs.  of  grain  per  sheep  per  day. 

The  Poultry  House 

It  is  only  possible  in  this  discussion  to 
present  the  general  requirements  of  such 
a  building  as  a  poultry  house.  There  is  no 
generally  accepted  standard  form  as  com- 
pared to  other  farm  buildings,  as  climatic 
and  other  conditions  vary  so  widely  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country.  There  are  pre- 
vailing types  in  different  sections,  each  well 
adapted  for  its  particular  location. 


00 

an 


J^^ 


Muslin 
Frame 
Hinge  fo 
Sir/ng  in 
anj  up.. 


00 
DD 


Coi>vr  mfh 
f  mesh 
ifire  ntf. 


IE 


00 
DD 


l^aH; 


FRONT  ELEVATION 


-  Hinges - 


fl'^'^ —  Hini^e 


¥-r-^■''^■^ 


CTmn: 


ffiE 


=^ 


Uli 


I ^ 


Nest  Boxes  Under-i 


Propping  Board      *  ^ 


-24-0"- 


Broody 
Coop 

mil 


Covered 
Bath 


-Z8'-0'- 


^Mustin  Frame  Inside  - 


■^'^-■^    ■  6' Concrete  Wall -^^^ 

SECTION 


-"Prepared  Roofing 


fWireMesh- 


■fyVireMesh 


PLAN 

Fig.  123. — Poultry  house  designed  for  100  hens. 


END  ELEVATION 


should  be  so  built  as  to  permit  closing  in 
case  of  driving  storms  from  the  south. 

In  designing,  twelve  square  feet  of  floor 
space  should  be  allowed  for  each  breeding 
ewe,  and  six  square  feet  for  each  fatting 
lamb. 

A  sufficient  number  of  hurdles  should  be 


Comfort  may  be  called  the  key  word  in 
poultry  house  construction.  Fresh  air  is 
demanded,  hence  the  ventilation  is  an  im- 
portant consideration.  Care  in  both  drain- 
age and  ventilation  will  give  the  dryness 
required.  Sunlight  must  be  admitted,  thus 
the  house  should  face  south  or  southeast, 


72 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


if  possible  being  built  on  a  south  or  southeast 
slope.  One  square  foot  of  glass  area  for 
each  twenty  square  feet  of  floor  space  is 
a  minimum,  but  other  openings  for  ventila- 
tion should  be  provided.  These  openings 
should  be  so  placed  as  to  allow  circulation 
without  drafts.  If  covered  with  muslin 
frames,  the  cloth  will  allow  good  circulation 
without  any  draft,  and  will  give  sufl&cient 
protection  during  the  cold  months.  Too 
much  glass  radiates  an  excessive  amount  of 
heat,  and  sometimes  causes  condensation  of 
too  much  moisture. 

Small  houses  with  a  capacity  of  from 
seventy-five  to  three  hundred  birds  are  to 
be  preferred,  and  from  two  to  five  square 
feet  of  floor  space  to  each  bird  Should  be 
allowed. 

Floors  may  be  of  earth  if  well  drained, 
but  the  concrete  floor  has  the  advantage 
of  being  sanitary  and  rat  and  vermin 
proof. 

Roofs  should  be  water-tight.  They  may 
be  of  any  type,  as  shed,  half  monitor  or  gable, 
but  the  shed  roof  with  slope  to  the  north  is 
cheap  and  satisfactory,  if  the  span  is  not 
over  fourteen  feet  wide. 

Roosts  should  be  about  ten  inches  above 
the  dropping  boards,  from  twelve  to  four- 
teen inches  apart,  and  eight  to  twelve  inches 
of  space  allowed  for  each  fowl.  The  roost 
frame  should  be  hinged  to  facilitate  cleaning 
the  dropping  board.  Nests  must  be  con- 
venient for  the  laying  hens.  One  nest  for 
three  to  five  birds  is  a  fair  allowance.  They 
should  be  twelve  by  twelve  by  sixteeen 
inches  and  placed  about  twelve  inches  above 
the  floor.  Wire  mesh  bottoms  will  aid  in 
cleaning.  The  top  board  of  the  nest  box^ 
should  slope,  to  prevent  roosting,  unless 
the  nests  are  placed  under  the  dropping 
board.  A  good  trap  nest  is  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
Chapter  I. 

Fig.  123  is  a  house  designed  for  one  hundred 
birds,  and  will  give  suggestions  as  to  pos- 
sible arrangement  and  construction. 


Implement  Sheds 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  he  is  a 
wise  farmer  who  houses  his  implements  and 
tools  when  not  in  actual  service  in  the  field. 
Experience  has  shown  that  taking  into 
account  the  amount  and  kind  of  machinery 
now  in  use,  a  shed  of  eighteen  to  twenty- 
four  feet  in  width  is  the  most  economical 
in  construction.  Twelve  foot  openings  will 
take  in  the  widest  machine,  and  if  made 
twelve  feet  in  height  will  accommodate 
tractors,  hay-loaders  and  other  implements 
requiring  head  room. 

The  best  way  to  plan  a  machine  shed  is 
to  make  a  list  of  the  implements  to  be  housed, 
including  probable  later  additions.  Measure 
the  overall  dimensions,  length  and  width,  of 
each  of  these  machines,  lay  off  these  dimen- 
sions separately  to  scale  and  cut  out  paper 
rectangles  representing  the  different  ma- 
chines, writing  the  name  on  each.  By  shift- 
ing and  arranging  these  little  dummies, 
bearing  in  mind  the  season  and  use  of  each 
implement,  the  approximate  dimensions 
of  the  building  necessary  for  them,  with  a 
definite  place  for  each  implement  may  be 
derived,  and  a  plan  drawn  with  the  exact 
knowledge  of  what  it  will  hold. 

Fig.  124  shows  the  working  drawing  of  one 
type  of  shed,  together  with  a  lumber  bill 
for  it.  The  concrete  floor  is  optional,  but  is 
desirable  in  that  it  raises  the  wheels  of  the 
machines  above  the  surrounding  grade  and 
thus  prevents  rust.  It  should  be  made  to 
slope  toward  the  front  of  the  shed,  dropping 
one-eighth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  to  a 
foot. 

Doors  may  be  added  to  prevent  snow 
or  rain  from  being  driven  in  on  the  ma- 
chinery. 

A  repair  room  or  tool  house  is  sometimes 
added. 

A  list  of  the  floor  space  required  for  some 
standard  farm  implements  is  given  on  page 
113. 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


73 


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74 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Corn  Cribs 

A  corn  crib  should  be  constructed  so  as 
to  allow  the  air  to  circulate  freely  through 


and   one-half   cubic  feet  should  be  allowed 
for  a  bushel  of  ear  corn. 

Rat,  mouse,  and  bird  proof  cribs  are  easily 
constructed.     A  concrete  floor  will  practi- 


Roof  covering  may  be 
V-crimped  gal\/anizee/ 
metal,  shingles,  or3-ply 
prepared  roofing. 


I  iffHan/ivood^y 
;,j  Slats  spaced ^"■'^^ 


I- 1-4  Concrete^ 


H  H!     \\    M!     jfT 


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1 

1 

1 
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bIHH 

END  ELEVATION 


SECTION- 


SIDE  ELEVATION 


SECTION 


Fig.  125. — Double  corn  crib,   stright  sides,   wood  floor. 


Roof  covering  may  be 
V-crimped  galvanized 
metal ^  shingles,  or  3 
p/g  prepared  roofing. 


Z4'Cent 


'^S.s 


H 


END  ELEVATION  SECTION  i"^**    '  SIDE  ELEVATION  SECTION 

Fig.  126. — Double    corn    crib,    flaring    sides,    concrete    floor. 


the  grain.  In  regions  where  it  is  very  moist, 
as  in  Ohio,  cribs  should  not  be  built  more 
than  five  feet  in  width.  In  dry  localities 
they  may  be  eight  to  ten  feet  wide.     Two 


cally  eliminate  the  two  former  pests.  Tight 
construction  about  the  eaves  will  prevent 
annoyance  from  the  birds.  One-fourth  inch 
wire    mesh    screen    placed  under  the  floor 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


75 


slats  of  wood  floors,  and  between  slats  and 
studs  on  the  walls,  will  effectually  stop 
rodents  and  birds. 

Figs.  125  and  126  show  suggested  construc- 
tion for  two  types  of  double  crib.  In  addi- 
tion to  shelter  and  stability,  the  double  crib 


ings  the  use  of  the  "limiting  break"  line 
is  illustrated. 

Granaries 

The  important  consideration  in  the  con- 
struction  of   granaries   and   bins   for  loose 


T 


ICE  STORAGE 


\f-30'\ — ^ 


^V^  = 


HH 


M.        Ml' 


SAW  \DU5T  BIN 
Open\  Underneath 


HKU 


± 


PLAN 


ROCHESTER  MODEL  ICE  H0U3E- J5T0N5  aP'CY. 

BUREAU  OF  HEALTH  ROCHESTER.  NEW  YORK.  I903. 

Ice  to  be  packed  in  solid  mass  ivUh  brvken  joi'nfs,  <?/  least  /B  of 
tighfly  rammec/  saw  dust  all  around  ice. 

5ide  boards  of  hemlock  to  ^e  Jaid  so  tfie  shrinkage  will  provide 
^'space  betn^eer?  each  board  to  insure  drying  of  outside  layer  cfsaiv 
ffust 

All  air  to  be  excluded  from  underneath  the  ice.  Free  circulation 
of  air  oirer  ice. 

Drainage  must  be  proi^ided,  but  drain  shou/id  be  b/inded  mth  sand 
and  broken  stone,  grant,  or  anders.Thus  warm  air  irill  not  find  .its 
way  in  atong  the  drain  and  melt  the  ice. 

Do  not  build  this  house  in  a  sheltered  place .  The  sun  and  wind 
dry  ttie  outer  layer  of  sair  dust.  Dry  sairc/ust  is  a  ^aod  non-can- 
ctactor 

All  sfcidd/n^  B"" 4' hemlock.  Corner  pcuts  -^'f^: 

5/din^  f'^S" or  f'^ 8'  hemlock  fence  boards. 

Foundation  t-BfS  Concnete. 


y 

\k 

Sheet  Me/al,  Shingle,  or 
Conjposition  Roof. 

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S/Df  ELEVATION      SECTION  A- A 


END  ELEVATION 


MID-SECTION 


Fig.  127. 


has  the  advantage  of  providing  space  which 
may  be  utilized  for  winter  storage  of  farm 
implements.  One  of  the  two  examples  is 
shown  with  concrete  floor  construction  and 
the  other  with  a  wood  floor.     In  these  draw- 


grain  is  to  be  sure  that  the  structure  is 
designed  with  sufficient  strength  to  prevent 
bulging  of  the  sides  and  springing  of  the 
floors.  In  elevator  and  large  bin  construc- 
tion this  becomes  a  real  engineering  problem, 


76 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


but  in  any,  case  the  weight  of  the  maximum 
grain  contents  should  be  figured  and  the 
structure  designed  to  suit.  The  numerous 
recorded  accidents  from  failure  of  elevated 
bin  floors  serve  as  warnings.  Concrete, 
properly  reinforced,  is  the  ideal  material 
for  granaries.  Concrete  floors  laid  directly 
on  earth  should  be  well  underdrained  ^nd 
damp-proofed.  In  any  granary  construction 
rat  proofing  is  essential.  Incidentally,  rats 
and  mice  will  not  gnaw  hemlock. 

The  growing  tendency  to  build  com- 
munity elevators  is  lessening  the  number  of 
farm  granaries. 

Ice  Houses 

Ice  storage,  formerly  regarded  as  a  luxury, 
is,  for  dairy  farms  at  least,  a  necessity. 
The  proper  cooling  of  milk  and  the  storage 


-V       Kf:^v;;:;..:rh7T?Ty 


\'>    l/\ 

m 


A 


^w 


(3)  Ventilation  of  space  above  ice. 

The  elaborate  and  expensive  insulated 
walla,  with  many  thicknesses  of  different 
materials,  are  being  replacedvby  simpler  con-' 
st ruction,  the  limit  of  simplicity  being 
reached  in  the  Rochester  ice  house  illustrated 
in  Fig.  127,  which  is  being  built  by  many 
farmers,  and  shows  remarkable  results  in 
efficiency.  In  it  the  entire  insulation  is  the 
layer  of  saw  dust,  which,  when  the  building 
is  properly  located  in  an  exposed  position, 
is  kept  dry  by  the  free  air  circulation  through 
the  openings  between  the  boards,  and  dry 
saw  dust  is  one  of  the  most  effective  insulat- 
ing materials  known.  The  requirements 
for  the  successful  construction  and  packing 
of  this  house  are  given  on  the  drawing. 

In  designing  a  building  of  specified  ca- 
pacity, figure  on  the  basis  that  a  cubic  foot 


l^ferproof  Paper. 


Fig.  128. — Insulated'^valls  for  ice-house  construction. 


Inside 


of  dairy  products  demands  the  use  of  ice 
in  summer.  The  average  dairy  requires  a 
storage  of  from  one-half  to  one  and  one-half 
tons  of  ice  per  cow. 

The  requirements  for  ice  house  construc- 
tion are  simple  but  they  must  be  carried  out 
very  carefully. 

(1)  There  must  be  ample  drainage,  and 
the  drainage  so  arranged  as  to  exclude  air. 

(2)  Careful  insulation  of  walls. 


of  ice  weighs  about  fifty-seven  pounds,  or 
roughly  one  ton  of  ice  will  require  forty 
cubic  feet,  including  packing.  Twelve  inches 
should  be  allowed  on  top,  bottom  and  sides 
for  saw  dust.  Several  approved  types  of 
insulated  walls  are  shown  in  Fig.  128. 

Garages 

A  simple  problem  in  building  construction 
may  be  made  in  the   design  of  a  garage. 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


77 


78 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


It  may  be  built  of  wood,  brick,  stucco  or 
even  galvanized  iron.  The  size  of  machine 
or  machines  to  be  housed  is  of  course  the 
j&rst  consideration.  Provision  for  a  work 
bench  or  shelf,  the  method  of  gasoline  storage, 
the  desirability  of  a  repair  pit,  convenience 
of  entrance  and  exit,  conformity  of  the  ex- 
terior to  the  surrounding  architecture,  ma- 
terials for  walls  and  roof,  provision  for  water 
and  drainage,  best  location  for  windows, 
and  method  of  artificial  lighting  will  all 
be  decided  in  the  preliminary  study  of  the 
problem. 

Fig.  129  shows  a  garage  for  a  small  car, 
built  of  brick,  with  a  hip  roof.  The  symbol 
for  brick  in  elevation  to  small  scale  is  used 
on  the  drawing. 

Smoke  Houses 

The  smoke  house,  formerly  found  on 
every  farm,  is  not  so  common  a  farm 
structure  at  the  present  day,  but  the  problem 
of  its  design  may  be  used,  as  many  still 
prefer  to  smoke  their  own  meats.  It  may 
be  built  of  frame,  brick,  concrete,  con- 
crete blocks,  or  hollow  tile,  although  the 
frame  smoke  house  has  an  undesirable  fire 
risk. 

A  small  building,  five  feet  square,  has 
a  capacity  for  eight  hams.  The  meat 
should  be  hung  at  least  five  feet  above  the 
fire. 

For  an  average  farm,  a  brick  house  6'  by 
8',  having  a  grate  arranged  for  burning 
cobs  or  chips,  and  with  vents  near  the  roof, 
is  a  common  type.  A  safeguard  in  the  form 
of  an  arch  or  sheet  of  metal  above  the  fire 
to  prevent  loss  of  meat  from  blazing  fat  or 
unexpected  flares,  is  desirable.  A  suspended 
iron  rack  on  which  the  meat  is  laid  is  an 
improvement  over  the  usual  sticks  and 
strings.  The  alternative  of  sharp  steel 
hooks  for  suspending  the  meat  will  eliminate 
the  unsightly  holes  usually  made  when 
stringing  hams.  The  moral  effect  of  a  good 
strong  lock  should  not  be  overlooked. 


The  Dairy  House 

The  dairy  house  is  an  adjunct  to  the 
dairy  barn,  and  in  its  simplest  form  is 
used  for  the  temporary  storage  of  milk. 
It  is  sometimes  built  in  combination  with 
the  ice  house;  but  probably  oftener  the 
cooling  of  the  milk  depends  upon  a  water 
supply  from  a  spring  or  well,  flowing  con- 
stantly through  a  tank  in  which  the  milk 
cans  are  set.  It  must  be  of  a  type  that  will 
protect  against  heat,  dust  and  flies,  and 
necessarily  of  simple  construction  so  that 
it  may  easily  be  kept  clean  and  sanitary. 
Concrete  or  concrete  blocks,  hollow  tile, 
and  brick  are  particularly  well  adapted  for 
dairy  house  construction,  but  the  ice-house 
type  of  insulated  frame  wall  is  satisfactory. 
Concrete  floors  and  tanks  are  sanitary,  per- 
manent and  easily  constructed. 

A  very  common  type  for  keeping  the  night 
milking  until  the  following  morning,  is  a 
house  eight  by  ten  feet  inside,  with  a  tank  ex- 
tending across  one  side,  opposite  the  door, 
and  provided  with  a  window,  and  a  ventila- 
tor in  the  roof. 

A  dairy  house  in  which  an  aerator,  cooler, 
separator,  and  churn  are  to  be  used,  be- 
comes a  problem  in  design,  in  the  arranging 
of  the  equipment  in  the  most  convenient 
and  economical  form,  and  planning  a  build- 
ing to  suit. 

The  Silo 

Much  has  been  written  in  recent  years  on 
the  silo  and  its  desirability,  some  has  even 
been  written  against  it,  and  the  average 
farmer  is  well  informed  as  to  its  advantages 
and  limitations.  Regarding  the  silo  from 
the  point  of  view  of  design  and  drawing  it 
seems  unnecessary  to  include  the  details 
of  construction,  either  of  the  forms  for 
building  concrete  silos,  or  the  method  of 
construction  of  wooden  ones,  as  in  the 
former  case  forms  may  be  secured  from  those 
who  make  a  specialty  of  building  and  rent- 
ing them,  much  more  cheaply  than  they  can 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


79 


be  made  for  use  on  one  job,  and  stave,  tile, 
and  galvanized  iron  silos  are  purchased 
ready  for  erection. 

In  connection  with  a  barn  problem  our 
interest  is  in  the  required  capacity,  and  our 
drawing  simply  circles  of  the  required  di- 
ameter on  the  plan,  and  the  exterior  outline 
on  the  elevation. 


finish  top  h  3(//f 
kJnc^  of  silo. 


9".. 


/:?:4  Concrefe 


\^i'Rcl.f^od5  6'aparf 

\ 


•o 


"o 


"^^^^Mmm^^ 


^- 


Fig.  130. — Silo  foundation  of  concrete. 

The  thickness  of  the  wall,  as  indicated  on 
the  plan,  will  depend  upon  the  material  and 
size.  Concrete  block  and  vitrified  tile 
varies  from  4  to  8  inches,  monolithic  con- 
crete 6  inches,  stave  silos  2  inches,  lath  and 
plaster,  or  Gurler  type  6",  and  galvanized 
iron  a  single  black  line. 

Fig.  130  shows  a  section  of  concrete  founda- 
tion adaptable  for  silos  of  any  type. 

Silo  tables  of  use  in  this  connection  are 
found  on  page  115. 

The  Manure  Pit 

The  value  of  the  covered  manure  pit  for 
the  preservation  and  conservation  of  stable 
manure  is  becoming  more  and  more  ap- 
preciated. Manure  pits  are  simply  large 
tanks  or  vats  to  which  the  manure  is  taken 
and  stored  until  finally  used  on  the  fields. 
The  pit  should  be  built  not  less  than  100  feet 
from  the  dairy  stable,  although  most  dairy 
requirements  permit  a  minimum  of  fifty 
feet,  and  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  be 
easily    accessible    for   wagon    or   spreader. 


It  is  desirable  that  it  be  roofed,  and  if  pos- 
sible screened  against  flies. 

Fig.  132  shows  a  manure  pit  designed  for 
twenty  head  of  stock.  The  small  appended 
table  gives  the  size  and  capacity  required  for 
herds  of  various  sizes. 

The  Septic  Tank 

• 

The  introduction  of  water  supply,  and 
laundry  and  bath  conveniences  in  country 
homes  has  made  the  provision  for  suitable 
and  sanitary  means  for  taking  care  of  house 
wastes  and  sewage,  a  necessity.  The  open 
cesspool  is  at  best  a  temporary  affair,  un- 
satisfactory and  dangerous  to  health.  Scien- 
tific study  of  bacteria  and  bacterial  action 
on  sewage  has  resulted  in  the  recommendation 
of  the  use  of  the  septic  tank,  a  simple  under- 
ground receptacle  with  inlet  and  outlet, 
in  which  the  sewage  is  purified  by  natural 
bacterial  action. 


,  Manhole  Cover.  C.  I. 


9   V^'^^^^^^^^'^T^ 


DIMENSIONS  OF  TANK 


NO.  OF 
PERSONS 

WIDTH 
INSIDE 

A 

B 

6 

4-0" 

6-0" 

3-6- 

8 

4-0" 

6-6" 

4-0" 

IZ 

4-0- 

7-0" 

5-0" 

Fig.  131. — Double  chambered  septic  tank. 

The  type  shown  in  Fig.  131  is  known  as 
the  double  chambered  septic  tank,  and  gives 
better  results  than  the  single  tank.  Pa- 
tented improvements  are  sometimes  added. 

A  table  of  sizes  is  appended. 

Fences,  Paddocks,  Pens  and  Gates 

The  fence  to  be  effective  must  be  strong, 
durable,  tight,  and  high  enough  for  its  pur- 
pose. When  a  fence  is  made  of  posts  sup- 
porting wire,  the  corner  posts  must  be  set 


80 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


1 

Jt 

JJ; 

k; 

% 

> 

5 

■^ 

■^ 

is 

§ 

1 

§ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

? 

"S, 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


81 


deeply  and  be  firmly  anchored.  All  corners 
or  ends  must  be  thoroughly  braced.  The 
average  wire  fence  is  48"  high  with  posts  16 
feet  apart  and  in  the  ground  from  18" 
to  3  feet,  depending  upon  the  nature  of 
the  soil.  Corner  and  brace  posts  are  set 
4  feet  deep. 

Paddocks  are  designed  for  close  confine- 
ment of  animals,  and  are  usually  constructed 


are  common  heights,  and  the  sections  may  be 
of  any  length  convenient  for  handling. 

Pens  are  used  for  smaller  enclosures  than 
paddocks,  intended  for  a  single  animal  or 
a  few  animals.  The  construction  will  vary 
according  to  the  animals  to  be  confined. 

Gates,  as  a  rule  should  be  made  stronger 
than  the  fence  of  which  they  form  a  movable 
section,  as  they  receive  harder  service  than 


Fig.  133. — Some  forms  of  gate  construction. 


of  boards  or  planks,  nailed,  screwed  or 
bolted  firmly  to  the  posts.  They  are  made 
from  5  to  8  feet  in  height.  Wire  paddocks 
are  seldom  used  on  account  of  liability  of 
injury  to  the  animals. 

Hurdles  are  simply  movable  or  portable 
fence  or  gate  sections  constructed  so  as  to 
stand  alone.  They  are  used  for  temporary 
confinement,  or  for  aid  while  separating 
animals,  and  are  a  necessary  part  of  the 
equipment  of  sheep  barns.     36"   and  42" 


the  fence.  A  12  foot  opening  will  accom- 
modate most  machinery,  but  14  feet  is 
better  for  the  passage  of  large  loads  of  hay. 
The  height  should  conform  to  the  fence. 
Gate  posts  should  be  large  enough  to  bear 
the  weight  of  the  gate  without  allowing  it 
to  sag.  There  are  numerous  forms  of  gates 
as  built  on  the  farm,  and  many  types  for 
sale  in  the  market.  Fig.  133  illustrates 
in  diagram  the  lines  of  several  different 
designs  that  may  be  used.     The  bracing  in 


82 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


each   case  is  designed  to  form  a  truss  and 
prevent  deformation. 

The  Farm  House 

In  the  design  of  the  buildings  previously 
considered,  the  principles  of  planning  and 
construction  involved  were  based  on  the 
consideration  of  the  uses  and  functions  of 
each,  and  the  securing  of  the  maximum  of 
convenience,  economy  of  space  and  labor, 
and  durability.  In  designing  the  farm  resi- 
dence there  must  be  added  to  these  the  items 
of  beauty,  and  architectural  correctness, 
with  not  only  the  general  requirements  of  a 
farm  house  considered,  but  also  the  in- 
dividual requirements,  wishes  and  taste  of 
the  particular  family  which  is  to  occupy  the 
one  proposed.  Thus  this  problem  becomes 
the  most  interesting  as  well  as  the  most 
complicated  of  all  the  structures  about  the 
farm. 

The  house  must  be  planned  to  fit  both  the 
surroundings  and  the  family.  The  "lay" 
of  the  land,  the  direction  to  the  road,  the 
views  toward  the  house  and  from  the  house, 
and  the  planting,  all  have  a  bearing  on  the 
shape  and  the  architectural  style  to  be  de- 
termined upon.  The  house  must  look  as 
if  it  belonged  in  its  location,  and  should 
express  in  its  appearance  the  individuality 
of  the  owner. 

To  secure  all  this,  the  service  of  a  compe- 
tent architect  should  be  engaged,  who  will 
be  able  to  work  up  the  owner's  ideas  into  a 
harmonious  design,  exterior  and  interior, 
and  whose  knowledge  and  advice  on  the 
technical  points  of  construction  will  protect 
from  mistakes.  The  architect  is  the  owner's 
representative  in  dealing  with  the  contractor. 
There  is  a  temptation  sometimes  to  accept 
a  contractor's  offer  to  furnish  plans  free, 
but  the  fee  of  a  good  architect  is  more  than 
saved  in  his  protection  of  the  owner,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  satisfaction  of  having  jel 
pleasing  house. 

A  greater  mistake  is  to  buy  a  set  of  ready- 


made  plans  made  with  no  reference  as  to 
where  the  house  is  to  be  placed  or  who  is  to 
occupy  it. 

Our  discussion  of  the  farm  house  is  in- 
tended to  assist  the  prospective  owner  in 
setting  down  his  ideas,  so  as  to  present  work- 
able sketch  plans  to  the  architect,  as  a  basis 
for  the  final  plans  and  specifications. 

Planning  is  simply  a  process  of  reasoning, 
and  the  thought  of  the  needs  of  the  family, 
collectively  and  individually,  gives  the 
reason  for  everything  put  in  the  plan;  and 
success  in  it  depends  upon  one's  knowledge 
of  these  needs  and  the  ability  to  correlate 
and  adapt  them  into  a  well-balanced  design. 
Where  interests  conflict,  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  are  weighed,  and  sometimes 
a  desired  feature  must  be  omitted,  because 
of  inability  to  adapt  it. 

The  first  floor  plan  is  the  first  to  be  made. 
A  list  of  the  rooms  desired  is  written,  and 
preliminary  freehand  sketches  tried  until 
an  apparently  satisfactory  arrangement  is 
obtained.  This  is  worked  up  in  a  1/8" 
scale  drawing.  These  are  usually  made  on 
tracing  paper.  Part  or  all  of  the  following 
rooms  may  be  included  in  the  first  floor: 

1.  Kitchen  (and  pantry). 

2.  Dining  room. 

3.  Living  room. 

4.  Wash  room. 

5.  Den,  office  or  bed  room. 

6.  Stair  hall. 

7.  Screened  work  porch. 

8.  Living  porch. 

The  kitchen  is  in  many  respects  the  most 
important  room  in  the  house,  and  much 
thought  should  be  given  to  its  arrangement. 
The  reasoning  mentioned  should  be  applied, 
in  making  a  list  of  the  stores  and  supplies 
and  planning  the  most  convenient  place 
for  each,  and  in  locating  the  table,  range, 
cupboards,  pantry,  and  sink,  with  thought 
of  the  purpose  of  each,  mentally  answering 
the  question,  "why  is  this  the  best  place, 
will   any   steps   be  saved?"     Women  walk 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


83 


•FIRST-FLOOR-PLAN 

•  5CALEL:  Va'-IFT- 


Fig.  134. — First  floor  plan  of  farm  house. 


84 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


miles  of  useless  steps  because  the  men  who 
planned  their  kitchens  did  not  think! 

The  kitchen  should  have  cross-ventilation, 
be  well  lighted  and  sanitary,  not  too  large, 
and  should  open  to  a  rear  porch. 

The  kitchen  score  card  given  on  page  117 
has  been  used  in  checking  the  desirable 
points  in  existing  kitchens,  on  a  scale  of  100. 

In  nearly  all  city  and  suburban  houses, 
the  kitchen  is  connected  to  the  dining  room 
through  a  serving  pantry,  which  provides 
an  air  lock,  keeping  out  odors  and  heat, 
but  many  in  building  farm  houses  prefer  a 
direct  double  swinging  door. . 

The  dining  room  should  preferably  face 
east,  should  be  light  and  cheerful,  and 
rectangular  rather  than  square  in  shape. 
The  size  can  be  figured  accurately  from  the 
number  to  be  accommodated,  by  knowing 
the  size  of  a  dining  table  and  the  space 
needed  for  each  person.  Group  windows  are 
more  effective  and  pleasing  than  single 
windows. 

The  living  room  is  the  largest  room  in  the 
house.  It  should  have  a  south  and  west 
exposure,  be  convenient  of  access,  have  quiet 
continuous  lines,  and  if  possible  a  fire-place. 
The  sentiment  of  the  home  centers  about  the 
fire-place. 

The  wash  room  is  an  important  considera- 
tion that  should  not  be  omitted.  It  should 
open  to  the  rear,  and  have  ample  lavatory 
facilities  for  men's  convenience  in  coming 
from  the  field.  Provision  for  plenty  of  coat 
hooks  should  not  be  forgotten. 

A  first  floor  bed  room  is  often  desired, 
sometimes  for  continuous  use  and  sometimes 
for  emergency  use  in  case  of  illness.  In 
the  latter  case  a  room  may  be  designed  as 
an  office  or  den,  and  used  as  an  emergency 
bed  room.  It  should  be  somewhat  isolated 
in  location,  and  if  planned  for  an  office 
should  be  easily  accessible  from  the  outside. 

The  amount  of  space  given  to  stairs  and 
stair  hall  depends  upon  the  economy 
necessary.     In  large  houses  the  main  stair- 


way is  made  a  feature  of  the  house,  and  rear 
stairs  are  always  provided  as  well.  In  small 
houses  one  stairway  may  serve  all  purposes. 
Stairs  should  never  be  less  than  3  feet  wide. 

In  planning  the  stairway  the  number  of 
risers  should  be  figured,  and  the  rule  may  be 
used  that  the  sum  of  the  rise  and  tread 
should  be  173^^  inches.  Thus  if  the  rise  is 
73^^  inches  the  tread  would  be  10  inches,  and 
on  the  plan  the  lines  representing  the  risers 
would  be  drawn  10  inches  apart.  The 
entire  run  is  never  shown  on  one  plan,  but 
is  broken  to  show  what  is  under. 

Good  comfortable  porches  should  be  re- 
garded as  a  necessity  in  farm  house  planning. 
A  working  porch  off  the  kitchen  should  be 
screened,  and  a  screened  living  porch, 
conveniently  arranged  for  summer  dining 
is  a  desirable  consideration. 

In  a  large  house  other  rooms,  such  as  a 
library,  music  room,  reception  room,  helps' 
dining  and  sitting  rooms,  etc.,  may  be  added^ 
according  to  the  owners'  desires  and  financial 
ability. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  isolated  and 
generally  unused  "parlor"  has  been  omitted 
from  the  list  of  first  floor  rooms. 

The  second  floor  should  contain 

1.  Hall,  on  which  all  rooms  should  open. 

2.  Sleeping  rooms,  with  ample  closet 
space  in  each. 

3.  Bath. 

4.  Linen  closet. 

5.  Rooms  for  help. 

6.  Sewing  room. 

7.  Sleeping  porch. 

In  planning  the  second  floor  it  is  not  nec- 
essary that  all  walls  run  through  from  the 
first  floor  partitions.  The  outside  walls, 
stair  well  and  chimneys  are  traced  from  the 
first  floor,  and  the  space  cut  up  to  the 
best  advantage.  No  room  should  be  made 
to  serve  as  a  passageway  to  another  room. 

Bed  rooms  should  have  at  least  two  win- 
dows, with  cross-ventilation  if  possible.  The 
first  consideration  in  a  bed  room  is  a  well- 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


85 


'SECOND*  FLOOR- PLAN • 

*  scale:  V^"-ift* 
Fig.  135. — Second  floor  plan  of  farm  house. 


86 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


planned  space  for  the  bed,  the  second  is 
ample  closet  room.  External  angles  should 
be  avoided,  that  is,  closets  should  not  break 
into  the  rectangle  of  the  room,  nor  should 
they  be  cut  off  across  corners. 

The  bath  room  should  be  located  so  as  to 
make  the  plumbing  simple  and  economical. 
It  need  not  be  larger  than  6'  X  9'.  All  the 
fixtures  should  be  drawn,  to  show  their 
location.  For  a  farm  where  much  help  is 
employed  it  is  very  desirable  to  have  more 
than  one  bath  room. 

A  large  linen  closet  opening  to  the  hall  is 
very  desirable.  A  clothes  chute  to  the 
laundry  may  be  provided. 

Rooms  for  help  are  best  arranged  to  be 
reached  from  a  rear  stairway  and  isolated 
from  the  rest  of  the  second  floor. 

A  small  sewing  room  is  a  convenient  addi- 
tion. 

A  sleeping  porch  is  becoming  a  popular 
addition  to  every  house  plan.  It  should  be 
tightly  screened,  and  canvas  curtains  pro- 
vided for  inclement  weather.  These  may  be 
fastened  with  carriage  buttons,  or  mounted 
on  rollers.  The  porch  may  open  from  the 
upstairs  hall,  or  a  private  sleeping  porch 
may  open  to  a  bed  room  or  dressing  room. 

Attic  stairs  should  always  start  from  the 
hall,  and  not  from  any  room.  Generally 
on  house  plans  the  attic  plan  and  roof  plan 
are  combined  in  one  figure. 

The  basement  should  extend  under  the 
entire  house,  with  concrete  floor  and  drains. 
It  should  have  an  outside  grade  entrance  as 
well  as  the  inside  cellar  stairs.  If  a  furnace 
is  used,  the  furnace  and  fuel  room  should  be 
separate  from  the  storage  room. 

A  basement  laundry  and  drying  room,  with 
water  and  flue  connections  should  be  ar- 
ranged. A  clothes  chute  opening  into  the 
laundry  is  a  convenience. 

Modern  farm  houses  often  have  the  lighting 
and  water  supply  systems  in  the  basement. 

The  probable  cost  of  a  proposed  house  may 
be  estimated  roughly  by  cubing  it,  as  ex- 
plained under  "estimating"   on  page   118. 


If  after  drawing  the  preliminary  sketch 
plans  the  estimate  runs  higher  than  the 
owner  wishes  to  go,  the  process  of  "cutting" 
must  be  resorted  to,  by  simplifying  construc- 
tion, changing  materials,  cutting  down  sizes 
of  rooms,  or  omitting  some.  The  mistake 
should  not  be  made  of  having  many  small 
rooms.  It  is  better  to  have  fewer  and  larger 
ones.  Radical  cutting  may  mean  the  entire 
revision  or  discarding  of  the  first  plan. 

Figs.  134,  135  and  136  show  the  basement, 
first  floor  and  second  floor  plans  of  a  farm 
house,  embodying  some  desirable  features. 
These  plans  illustrate  the  use  of  the  symbols 
and  the  appearance  of  the  usual  set  of  plans. 

Problems. 

The  following  problems  are  to  have  com- 
plete working  plans'drawn,  with  dimensions, 
title  and  bills  of  material.  The  sizes  of 
buildings  are  not  given,  but  are  to  be  deter- 
mined from  the  requirements  stated,  figuring 
the  space  required  for  animals  and  storage 
and  planning  its  practical  and  economical 
distribution.  Some  of  the  problems  are 
suggestive  rather  than  definite,  and  the  data 
is  to  be  assumed  by  the  student,  or  assigned 
by  the  instructor. 

Before  starting  a  problem  read  the  discus- 
sion carefully,  look  up  other  reference  read- 
ing, and  supplement  the  information  found 
from  your  own  practical  knowledge  and 
experience. 

PROBLEMS. 

1.  Design  and  make  working  drawings  for  the 
forms  of  a  concrete  watering  trough  to  hold  ten 
barrels  of  water  when  filled  within  two  inches  of  the 
top.  Provide  concrete  paving  six  feet  wide  on 
three  sides  of  the  tank.  Select  suitable  scale  and 
follow  directions  for  working  given  on  page  38. 

2.  Draw  an  "A"  type  of  hog  cot,  with  6'-0"  X 
8'-0"  floor.  Make  end  view  first  and  project  side 
view  from  it.  If  necessary,  use  an  auxiliary  pro- 
jection. 

3.  Design  a  machine  shed  for  the  following  imple- 
ments: Two  wagons,  one  grain  binder,  one  corn 
binder,  one  grain  drill,  one  mower,  one  side  delivery 
hay  rake,  one  hay  tedder,  one  common  rake,  one 
hay  loader,  one  disc  harrow,  two  peg  tooth  harrows, 
one  gang  plow,  one  sulky  plow,  one  ensilage  cutter, 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


87 


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BASEMENT^  PLAN* 

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Fig.  136. — Basement  plan  of  farm  house. 


88 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


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Fig.  137. — Sketch  plans  of  farm  houses. 


FARM  STRUCTURES 


89 


two  2-row  cultivators,  one  single  row  sulky  culti- 
vator, one  walking  plow,  one  small  cultivator,  one 
2-row  corn  planter,  one  manure  spreader,  one  spring 
wagon,  and  miscellaneous  small  tools.  Add  twelve 
feet  for  a  tool  repair  room. 

4.  Design  a  machine  shed  for  the  implements  in 
use  on  your  farm. 

5.  Design  a  laying  house  for  50  hens. 

6.  Design  a  poultry  house  for  200  birds.  This 
may  be  divided  into  two  compartments. 

7.  Design  a  sheep  shed  for  200  breeding  ewes. 
(There  will  be  50%  more  lambs  than  ewes  in  the 
average  flock.) 

8.  Design  a  colony  type  house  for  ten  brood  sows. 
In  the  plan  show  runs  and  dipping  vat.  Provide 
feed  room,  and  bedding  storage. 

9.  Design  a  colony  type  house  for  twenty  brood 
sows.     Provide  central  storage  and  feed  house. 

10.  Design  a  single  corn  crib,  500  bushels  capacity. 

11.  Design  a  double  corn  crib,  1200  bushels 
capacity. 

12.  Design  a  dairy  barn  for  12  cows,  making 
provision  for  box  stalls  and  calf  pens.  Feed  room 
to  be  separated  from,  but  accessible  to  dairy  stable. 

13.  Design  a  dairy  barn  for  30  cows.  Compute 
sizes  and  add  silos,  hay  storage  and  grain  bins.  To 
the  barn  attach  a  straw  shed,  the  first  floor  of  which 
is  a  covered  yard,  the  shed  capacity  to  be  two  tons 
of  straw  per  animal.  The  shed  may  be  arranged 
either  to  form  an  ell,  or  may  be  parallel  to  the  main 
structure. 

14.  A  farmer  has  8  milch  cows,  8  work  horses, 
and  is  feeding  25  steers.  Design  a  general  purpose 
barn  to  house  this  stock  and  provide  necessary 
feed.  Allow  25  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space  for  each  steer. 
(Try  L  or  T  shape  in  preliminary  sketches.) 

16.  Design  a  rectangular  general  purpose  barn 
for  6  regular  horse  stalls,  four  box  stalls  for  brood 
mares,  and  a  dairy  stable  for  16  cows.  The  dairy 
stable  must  conform  to  the  score  card  on  page  116. 
It  is  suggested  that  this  be  made  a  bank  barn,  with 
a  bridge  leading  to  the  approach,  so  that  there  may 
be  no  interference  with  light  on  the  bank  side. 

16.  Design  a  manure  pit  for  the  bam  of  Problem  13. 

17.  Design  a  manure  pit  for  the  barn  of  Problem  15. 

18.  Design  a  garage  for  a machine. 

19.  Design  a  combination  garage  and  carriage 
house,  using  stucco  on  8"  hollow  tile  walls. 

20.  Design  an  ice  house  for  10  tons  of  ice. 

21.  Design  an  ice  house  for  a  dairy  farm  having 
24  cows,  and  a  dairy  house  provided  with  cold 
storage  room  and  cooler. 

22.  Design  a  brick  smoke  house. 

23.  Design  a  septic  tank  for  a  family  of  6  persons. 

24.  Design  a  root  cellar  of  600  bushels  capacity, 
built  four  feet  below  ground;  the  top  a  concrete  or 


brick  arch,  to  allow  of  covering  with  earth.  The 
concrete  arch  should  be  at  least  6"  thick  and  strongly 
reinforced,  with  a  span  of  not  over  8  feet.  Have  the 
entrance  on  south  end. 

26.  Design  a  storage  barn  for  75  tons  of  hay. 

26.  Design  a  dairy  house,  made  of  concrete  blocks 
8"  X  8"  X  16",  figuring  sizes  and  spacing  of 
openings  to  fit  these  blocks.  Provide  a  tank  18" 
deep  and  not  less  than  17"  wide.  Show  piping  for 
continuous  flow  of  water.  (If  tank  and  floor  are 
elevated  above  grade  it  will  save  labor  in  handling 
cans.) 

27.  Design  a  water  storage  tank  with  a  capacity 
of  50  barrels,  having  a  base  6  feet  square,  or  6  feet 
in  diameter,  inside.     The  tank  should  have  a  floor 


/Ox/J' 


ions' 
e./f.  . 


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A  real  example  of  poor  planning. 


8"  thick,  reinforced  in  both  directions  with  %"  rods 
spaced  6"  apart,  and  bent  to  extend  up  into  the 
walls  2'-6".  The  walls  should  taper  (on  the  inside) 
from  10"  thick  at  the  base  to  5"  at  the  top,  and  a 
footing  must  be  provided.  The  walls  should  be 
reinforced  with  %"  vertical  rods  spaced  16"  apart, 
and  3^"  horizontal  rods  spaced  6"  apart  for  first 
30",  8"  apart  for  next  30",  and  above  this  %"  rods 
spaced  7"  apart.  If  square  or  rectangular  tank  is 
made  the  horizontal  rods  should  be  bent  so  as  to 
turn  corners. 

28.  Design  a  granary  to  hold  1200  bushels  of 
wheat  and  600  bushels  of  oats. 

29.  Make  a  sketch  and  bill  of  material  for  a 
paddock  for  horses,  to  enclose  one  acre.  Have  it 
6  feet  high,  using  2"  X  6"  X  16'  plank,  bolted  to 
posts  8  feet  from  center  to  center;  and  provide 
suitable  gate. 

30.  Design  a  farm  house,  selecting  the  scheme 
from  one  of  the  sketches  of  Fig.  137. 

31.  Design  a  tenant  house,  containing  a  kitchen, 
combined  dining  and  living  room,  and  two  bed  rooms. 

32.  Remodel  the  house  shown  in  Fig.  138,  to 
make  it  more  convenient  and  comfortable.  (This 
figure  was  taken  from  an  actual  house!) 


CHAPTER  V 


MAPS  AND  TOPOGRAPHICAL  DRAWING 


An  important  consideration  in  both  the 
ownership  and  management  of  a  farm  is  to 
have  accurate  maps  and  plats,  in  ownership 
so  that  there  may  be  no  question  nor  dispute 
regarding  Unes  or  boundaries,  and  in  manage- 
ment, in  order  to  plan  work,  and  keep  a 
record  of  crop  production,  soil  fertility,  rota- 
tion of  crops,  etc. 

A  farm  map  gives  at  once  a  comprehensive 
idea  of  the  entire  farm  and  the  relative  areas, 
sizes  and  locations  of  the  parts  composing 
it;  and  imparts  to  the  owner  or  manager, 
and  incidentally  to  the  interested  visitor,  a 
better  conception  or  mental  picture  of  these 
relations  than  can  be  gained  without  it. 
It  gives  a  kind  of  birdseye  view  which  is  of 
great  assistance  to  him  in  planning  his  work, 
in  showing  the  most  desirable  locations  for 
roads  and  lanes,  for  division  of  fields,  and 
for  the  addition  of  improvements. 

This  chapter  takes  up  briefly  the  methods 
and  application  of  this  branch  of  the  lan- 
guage of  drawing. 

Instruments. 

A  surveyor  uses  a  transit  for  turning  off 
angles  and  for  obtaining  magnetic  bearings 
or  directions  of  lines.  It  is  an  expensive 
instrument  and,  while  desirable,  is  not  a 
necessary  investment  on  the  farm;  but  a 
small  farm  level  (prices  of  which  range  from 
ten  to  forty  dollars)  will  be  of  constant  value 
on  every  farm,  for  laying  out  drains,  leveling 
building  foundations,  determining  fall  of 
streams  for  water  power,  and  laying  out 
road  and  fence  lines.     If  provided  with  a 


horizontal  circle,  as  many  are,  it  will  be 
found  very  valuable  in  laying  out  fields. 

For  rough  determination  of  levels  for 
grading  or  ditching,  a  hand  level  may  be 
used.  An  "A"  frame  for  this  purpose  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  172. 

Land  measurernents  were  formerly  given 
in  rods,  and  measurements  made  with  a 
"Gunter's  chain"  of  4  rods  (66  feet),  divided 

1^  \AAAAAAAAAA.AA\4\Axla  \ 


Fig.  139. — Engineers'  scale  and  protractor. 

into  100  "links"  of  7.92  inches.  Lengths 
are  now  given  in  feet  and  tenths  of  feet. 

For  general  use  on  the  farm  a  100  ft.  steel 
tape,  graduated  in  feet  and  inches  will  be  of 
constant  service  in  laying  out  and  measuring 
fields,  buildings  and  boundaries;  and  for  the 
few  times  when  tenths  of  feet  are  needed 
they  may  be  calculated  from  inches. 

A  farm  office  should  have  on  hand  a 
protractor  for  laying  off  angles  on  the  map, 
and  a  12  inch  engineer's  scale,  divided  into 
10,  20,  30,  40,  50  and  60  parts  to  the  inch. 
With  it  a  map  may  be  made  to  any  desired 


90 


MAPS  AND  TOPOGRAPHICAL  DRAWING 


91 


scale,  or  number  of  feet  to  the  inch ;  or  if  the 
old-style  measurements  are  preferred,  may- 
be made  to  such  a  scale  as  10  chains  to  the 
inch.  The  protractor  and  engineer's  scale 
are  illustrated  in  Fig.  139. 

A  map  is  virtually  a  top  view  of  the  area 
represented,  showing  the  natural  features 
and  the  works  of  man,  and  the  imaginary 
lines  representing  divisions  of  authority  or 
ownership.  The  relief,  or  relative  elevations 
and  depressions  of  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
is  sometimes  added,  to  give  the  complete 
description  of  an  area,  in  which  case  the  map 
is  called  a  contour  map. 

The  scale  of  a  map  varies  of  course  with 
the  extent  of  territory  to  be  shown  on  a  sheet 
of  given  size,  but  in  any  map  the  scale  is 
relatively  so  small  that  objects  are  shown 
symbolically.  The  map  of  an  ordinary 
farm  may  be  drawn  from  40  feet  to  100  feet 
to  the  inch. 

Plats. 

A  map  plotted  from  a  plane  survey,  and 
having  the  relief  omitted,  is  called  a  "plat" 
or  "land  map."  Under  this  head  would 
come  the  plat  of  a  farm  survey,  made  from 
the  surveyor's  record,  or  from  the  description 
in  the  deed  to  the  property. 
A  Farm  Survey.  * 

The  plat  of  a  farm  survey  should  give 
clearly  all  the  information  necessary  for 
the  legal  description  of  the  parcel  of  land. 
It  should  contain: 

(1)  Lengths  and  bearings  of  the  several 
sides. 

(2)  Acreage. 

(3)  Location  and  description  of  monu- 
ments found  and  set. 

(4)  Location  of  highways,  streams,  etc. 

(5)  Official  division  lines  within  the  tract. 

(6)  Names  of  owners  of  abutting  property. 
(.7)  Title  and  north  point. 

(8)  Certification. 

Under  these  heads,  (1)  a  survey  to  be  legal 
must  be  made  in  "metes  and  bounds."     The 


bearing  of  a  line  is  its  deviation  from  north 
and  south.  Thus  a  line  N.  15°  W.  would 
be  a  line  deflecting  at  an  angle  of  15  degrees 
to  the  west  of  the  north  and  south  line.  (2) 
The  acreage  of  a  farm  or  field  is  calculated 
by  well-known  methods.  (3)  Monuments 
are  markers  set  in  the  ground,  or  sometimes 
on  the  older  surveys,  blazed  on  a  tree.  The 
importance  of  good  monuments  should  be 
emphasized,  and  wooden  stakes  should  be 
avoided.  An  iron  pin  or  pipe  is  sometimes 
used.  A  better  marker  is  a  gas  pipe  stake 
set  in  concrete  in  a  land  tile.  When  it  is 
necessary  to  move  and  put  back  a  monu- 
ment, as  for  example  in  road  improvements, 
witness  stakes  should  be  set  first,  with  which 
the  monument  may  be  aligned.  (4)  High- 
ways and  streams  should  be  indicated  by  the 
symbols  of  Fig.  142.  Waterlining  if  at- 
tempted, should  be  done  carefully.  If  a 
boundary  runs  up  the  middle  of  a  stream  on  a 
farm  survey,  it  is  best  to  omit  the  water- 
lining.  (5)  Official  division  lines  would 
mean  township  and  range  lines,  or  other 
legal  divisions.  (6)  Adding  the  names  of 
the  owners  of  abutting  property  aids  in 
fixing  the  location  of  the  land  in  relation  to 
adjacent  property  holders.  (7)  The  title 
to  a  map  is  a  concise  formal  statement  of 
general  information,  giving  name  of  owner, 
location,  purpose  of  the  map,  when  made  and 
by  whom,  scale,  date,  and  key  to  symbols. 
The  North  Point  serves  to  orient  the  map, 
and  a  note  should  state  whether  the  true  or 
magnetic  meridian  is  referred  to.  (8)  A 
survey  to  be  legal  must  be  made  by  a  sur- 
veyor, and  be  certified  as  correct  by  the 
County  Surveyor's  office.  The  owner  should 
fa,miliarize  himself  with  the  State  laws  of  his 
state. 

Fig.  140  is  an  example  of  a  farm  plat. 

A  Farm  Office  Map. 

In  addition  to  the  items  of  tne  farm  survey, 
a  map  for  office  use  should  contain — 
(1)  Location  of  buildings. 


92 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


(2)  Location  of  all  drains  and  underground 
pipes. 

(3)  Division  lines  of  all  fields,  fenced  or 
unfenced. 


This  map,  with  the  fields  numbered  and 
recorded  in  a  farm  book  will  be  a  valuable 
aid  in  recording  crop  rotation,  production, 
state  of  fertility,  soil  tests,  dates  of  improve- 


.         T/7e  ^e£7r//7^s  are  ca/co'/cz/ea'  /9v/77 


^  S/o/7e  Mo/?.  rbcf/Tc/ 


/  /7eredy  cer/ify  //?e  a/?Oi^e  p/t7/  /o  be  c'orrec/ 

83/p23  c.rjv  Ca  SUK 


PLAT 

TH£J.C.iVARD  FARM 

^ore  rffAcr/2  &^£»r^  tracts 

M/tD/SOA/  TIVP. 

LA/<£  CO. 

O. 

SCALE  /'-zoo'  ^t/Af£  S./S/S 


Fig.  140. — Farm  plat  from  plane  survey. 


(4)  Numbers  on  all  fields. 

(5)  All  lanes  and  drives. 


ments,  etc.     It  will  also  serve  in  directing 
farm  labor,  and  planning  work  ahead,  such 


MAPS  AND  TOPOGRAPHICAL  DRAWING 


93 


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94 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


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Cleared  Land 


tix.-ii'd-^:i:|:i:l:l-'i:i-i-'i:i;i;i-i:i 
i.'-l..-ji.-lv^i:i:i:i-i:i:l  \\.V\-\'-\-\ 

Cultivated  Land 


\      \      \     \  \      \     \ 

I  n  I  M 

-^  -^^  -^  -"-  -^  -'- 1  \  I  I  f  I  \ 

M   M  M 


N'y-     >)/-    aV   -^    -4/-  ■\i'*   >i« 

'^U    ->l^  ,^lu    -^^•    -^Ir*   ^U    o(/i 

■^U     -^U     Wrt      '>t^    rtU 


-sj.^      '^l-^     '^^^     '^l'^     '^I'"'     '^J'~    '>l'^ 
ri^      "ir      ijrt,      '4-1      rl^    '■4-\     '>^  -4\ 
'^t-*    '^^^      ^>^'     -^      H-    ^^   nt^   ^ 

Tobacco 


vineyard 


VEGETATION 


Fig.  142. — Topographic  symbols. 


MAPS  AND  TOPOGRAPHICAL  DRAWING 


95 


as  fence  repairs,  plowing,  etc.  Some  use 
such  a  map,  mounted  on  soft  pine,  or  cork 
board,  by  using  pins 'with  variously  colored 
heads  in  locating  and  recording  operations. 

Sometimes  the  contour  lines  are  drawn  on 
the  farm  map  to  aid  still  further  in  its  use, 
particularly  in  planning  drainage. 

If  the  map  is  made  on  tracing  cloth,  blue 
prints  or  blue  line  prints  may  be  made,  and 
the  original  tracing  kept  up  to  date  in  regard 
to    permanent    improvements,    while    the 


lines,  the  positions  of  natural  land  and  water 
features,  and  the  "culture"  (as  topographers 
call  the  works  of  man),  but  also  the  relative 
elevations  and  depressions,  or  the  slopes  of 
the  hills  and  valleys.  The  different  kinds 
of  planting  and  vegetation  are  indicated  by 
symbols,  and  the  relief  is  generally  shown  by 
contour  lines. 

Fig.  142  is  a  page  of  standard  symbols 
used  in  topographic  drawing.  They  should 
be  made  with  a  fine  pen  and  not  overworked. 


82  50' 


Fig.  143. — Contour  map. 


prints  are  used  to  work  from,  and  filed  from 
year  to  year.  In  extensive  operating  a 
print  may  be  given  to  each  tenant. 

Fig.  141  shows  a  farm  map  for  office  use. 

Topographical  Drawing. 

A  topographic  map  is  a  more  nearly  com- 
plete description  than  a  land  map,  in  that 
it   gives   not   only   the   imaginary   division 


Contours. 

A  contour  is  a  line  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground  which  at  every  point  passes  through 
the  same  elevation,  that  is,  the  same  "level." 
Thus  the  shore  line  of  a  body  of  still  water 
represents  a  contour.  If  a  portion  of  a  farm 
should  be  flooded,  the  edge  of  the  water 
would  be  one  possible  contour.  If  the  water 
went  down  one  foot  in  depth,  the  new  shore 


96 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


line  would  form  a  new  contour,  with  a  con- 
tour interval  of  one  foot. 

Fig.  143  illustrates  a  contour  map,  in 
which  the  contour  intervals  are  ten  feet  for 
the  light  lines  and  fifty  feet  for  the  heavier 
lines.  Contour  lines  are  also  shown  in  Fig. 
5,  page  4. 

Quadrangle  Sheets. 

The  U.  S.  Government,  in  cooperation 
with  the  different  states,  and  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Geological  Survey,  is  mapping 
each  state,  in  sections  called  quadrangles, 
on  separate  sheets  of  about  16"  X  20",  and 
mostly  to  the  scale  of  approximately  one 
inch   to  the   mile.     These   maps   show   all 


features  in  inclined  letters.  For  plats,  the 
letters  of  Fig.  42  are  well  adapted.  Notes 
on  contour  and  profile  maps  are  generally 
made  in  Reinhardt  letters;  Fig.  46.  On 
landscape  maps  the  Roman  of  Fig.  47  may 
be  used. 

Profiles. 

If  a  vertical  section  is  taken  along  the  line 
ABCD  of  Fig.  143  the  view  is  termed  a  pro- 
file, as  shown  in  Fig.  144.  Here  it  is  seen 
that  the  vertical  distances  are  exaggerated, 
or  plotted  to  a  larger  scale  in  order  to  show 
the  grades  to  better  advantage.  Profiles 
are  usually  made  on  ruled  profile  paper, 
that  known  as   "Plate  A"   paper,   with  4 


Fig.  144. — Profile  from  contour  map. 


roads,  houses  and  other  topography,  together 
with  the  contours,  and  give  the  elevations 
of  all  cross  roads,  in  feet  above  mean  sea 
level.  They  are  distributed  at  the  nominal 
cost  of  ten  cents  each,  and  will  be  found  of 
much  value  and  interest  to  any  land  owner. 
To  find  if  a  particular  section  has  been  com- 
pleted, write  to  the  Director,  U.  S.  Geolog- 
ical Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Landscape  Maps  are  used  in  the  study  of 
improvements  for  estates,  country  places, 
parks  and  additions,  and  for  showing  the 
artistic  effect  to  be  gained  in  the  arrangement 
and  planting.  Some  degree  of  embellish- 
ment is  permissible,  and  color  is  sometimes 
used  on  them.  Fig.  145  illustrates  a  land- 
scape map  of  an  addition. 

The  lettering  done  on  maps  should  be 
simple  and  legible.  Land  features  are 
usually  indicated  in  vertical  letters  and  water 


horizontal  divisions  and  20  vertical  divi- 
sions to  the  inch,  being  generally  used. 
They  are  of  value  in  grading  drains  and 
highways. 

The  gradient,  or  grade  of  a  line  is  the  per- 
centage of  its  vertical  rise  or  fall,  thus  a 
road  of  7  per  cent,  grade  would  rise  seven 
feet  in  a  distance  of  100  feet,  and  a  drain 
with  —0.5  per  cent,  grade  would  have  a  fall 
of  6  inches  in  100  feet.  Tile  drains  should 
not  have  less  than  —0.1%  grade.  Open 
ditches  vary  from  2  to  8  feet  fall  per  mile. 

Problems. 

The  following  problems  illustrate  the  type 
that  may  arise  in  connection  with  this 
branch  of  drawing,  and  will  serve  as  sugges- 
tions for  the  student  or  farm  owner;  and  will 
give  a  familiarity  with  the  symbols,  and  the 
method  of  using  maps. 


MAPS  AND  TOPOGRAPHICAL  DRAWING 


97 


CLEVELAND   OHIO 

MAPLE  HEIGHTS    ADDITION 
THE  FOREST  CITY  LAND  CO 


Fig.  145. — ^Landscape  map. 


35     Survey  of  Truck  Farm  of  A.O.Harfer 
Osive^o,  Ohio. 


PT Bailey,  Suryeyor 
J.fi.PugJy.Chcr/r) 


lape  24 
Compass  /7 


36 


5fa. 


Bearing 


D/sfance 


Ju/y  ^e./9/5 


Fatr 


NIZ'ISE- 


760.32 


Iron  Pin  inConcre/i.  l\/fonumer)f  cor.Aliar/-er,J.Bro^n,  A.  Lloyd. 


N72°e8'E 


1149.  7Z 


Iron  pipe  driven  ii  i  ground. 


5  7'26'f 


1694. 20 


5tone  rr.  onumeni 


i  of  Hi^liway 


D 


5  79''28W 


1074.48 


Iron  peg    j  of  Hghway 


N34°00W 


1805.  76 


L  ar^e  <  ')ak  jree  t>/a  zed.  5p/ke  driven  in  b/aze. 


o'-  ^  77T7r~ 


^PA 


Fig.  146. — Page  from  field  book. 


98 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


MAPS  AND  TOPOGRAPHICAL  DRAWING 


99 


PROBLEMS. 

1.  From  the  note  book  page  shown  in  Fig.  146, 
plat  the  farm,  recording  all  data  as  outlined  on 
page  91. 

2.  Draw  a  map  of  your  home  farm,  from  deeds, 
or  measurements,  showing  location  of  all  buildings, 
and  natural  and  cultural  features. 

3.  Redesign  the  above,  to  secure  if  possible, 
better  and  more  economical  arrangement  of  plant. 

4.  From  the  contour  map  shown  in  Fig.  5,  page 
4,  locate  the  best  place  for  a  drain  or  drains. 
Draw  the  map,  locating  each  stretch,  and  indicate 
the  grade  of  each.  To  obtain  the  grade,  draw  on 
Plate  A  profile  paper,  a  profile  of  the  chosen  location. 
On  profile  show  gradient  and  depth  of  ditch  at  each 
50  feet  of  length.  Locate  these  50  ft.  points  or 
"hubs"  on  the  location  map. 

5.  Locate  on  the  contour  map,  Fig.  147,  a  farm- 
stead,   bearing    in    mind    drainage,    proximity    to 


highway,   accessibility  to  fields,   and  a  prevailing 
westerly  wind. 

6.  It  is  proposed  to  build  a  40  ft.  road  from  P  to 
Q,  Fig.  147.  Choose  a  location  bearing  in  mind 
grades,  natural  obstacles,  divisions  of  ownership 
etc.,  and  draw  a  strip  map  300  feet  wide  showing 
the  proposed  road.  Draw  a  profile,  showing  all 
drains,  bridges,  culverts,  etc. 

7.  Draw  a  farm  map  for  office  use,  of  Fig.  147, 
showing  all  the  items  referred  to  under  this  head. 
The  western  half  of  this  farm  needs  drainage. 

8.  On  Fig.  147  locate  a  dam  at  an  advantageous 
position.     Plot  the  impounding  reservoir. 

9.  Enlarge  a  portion  of  Fig.  141,  and  make  a 
finished  drawing,  showing  planting  of  different  fields 
by  symbols. 

10.  Enlarge  the  farmstead  of  Fig.  5  to  the  scale 
of  20  ft.  =  1  inch,  and  draw  a  landscape  map,  with 
proposed  planting,  walks  and  drives. 


CHAPTER  VI 


PICTORIAL  DRAWING 


In  Chapter  I  a  general  division  was  made 
between  pictorial  drawings  and  working 
drawings.  Perspective  drawing  was  defined, 
and  reference  was  made  to  the  simpler 
pictorial  methods  of  isometric  and  oblique 
drawing,  which  are  designed  to  combine  the 
advantages  of  both  orthographic  and  per- 
spective. Although  they  have  disadvan- 
tages and  limitations,  familiarity  with  these 
two  methods  is  very  desirable,  as  they  are 
often  used  both  to  illustrate  some  object 
or  detail  more  clearly  and  to  make  working 
sketches  and  drawings.  Working  drawings, 
as  we  have  seen,  are  generally  made  in  ortho- 
graphic projection,  but  often  a  working 
drawing  of  simple  construction  may  be 
drawn  to  better  advantage  in  isometric  or 
oblique. 

Although  theoretically  these  two  systems 
are  somewhat  different,  the  method  of  con- 
struction is  very  much  the  same  for  both. 

In  orthographic  projection  we  had  vir- 
tually a  separate  view  for  each  face  of  a 
rectangular  object.  In  these  pictorial  repre- 
sentations the  object  is  so  placed  that  three 
faces  of  it  are  visible  on  one  view.  To  avoid 
confusion  each  system  will  be  explained 
separately,  and  the  student  should  be  careful 
not  to  confuse  the  two  methods  in  the  same 
drawing. 

Isometric  Drawing. 

Isometric  drawing  is  based  on  a  skeleton 
of  three  lines  at  120  degrees  apart,  called  the 
isometric  axes.  One  is  drawn  vertically, 
the  others  with  the  30°  triangle,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  148(A).     When  it  is  desired  to  show  the 


under  side  of  an  object  the  axes  are  reversed, 
as  at  (B).  The  intersection  of  these  three 
lines  would  be  the  front  corner  of  a  rectangu- 
lar object.     If  the  length,  breadth  and  thick- 


FiG.  148. — Isometric  axes. 


Fig.  149. 

ness  of  the  object  be  laid  off  on  the  three 
axes,  the  figure  may  be  completed  by  drawing 
through  these  points,  lines  parallel  to  the 
axes.  Fig.  149. 

A  line  parallel  to  an  isometric   axis  is 


100 


PICTORIAL  DRAWING 


101 


called  an  isometric  line.  A  line  which  is 
not  parallel  to  an  isometric  axis  is  called 
a  non-isometric  line.  The  one  important 
rule  is  measurements  can  be  made  only  on 
isometric  lines.  Thus  all  the  lines  of  an 
object   which   has   square   corners   can   be 


object  composed  entirely  of  isometric  lines, 
and  illustrates  the  method  of  making  meas- 
urements on  the  original  isometric  axes  and 
on  lines  parallel  to  them. 

To  draw  an  object  which  has  non-isometric 
lines  in  it,  a  skeleton  of  isometric  construc- 


FiG.  150. — Object  with  isometric  lines 


Fig.  151. — Object  with  non-isometric  Hnes. 


measured  directly.  Non-isometric  lines  can 
not  be  measured.  For  example,  the  diag- 
onals of  the  rectangle  on  Fig.  149  are  of  equal 
length  on  the  object  but  evidently  of  very 
unequal  length  on  the  isometric  drawing. 
Fig.  150  is  the  isometric  drawing  of  an 


tion  lines  must  be  built  up,  upon  which 
measurements  can  be  made.  Often  it  is 
necessary  to  draw  one  or  more  orthographic 
views  first  and  box  them  with  rectangular 
construction  lines,  which  can  be  drawn  iso- 
metrically   and   measurements   upon   them 


102 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


made  and  transferred.     Fig.  151  illustrates 
this  construction. 

To  draw  intelligently  in  isometric  it  is 
only  necessary  to  remember  the  direction  of 
the  three  principal  isometric  planes,  repre- 
sented by  the  three  visible  faces  of  a  cube  or 


Fig.  152. — Approximate  isometric  circle. 

rectangular  figure.  Hidden  lines  are  always 
omitted  except  when  necessary  for  the  de- 
scription of  the  piece. 

A  circle  on  any  isometric  plane  will  be 
projected  as  an  ellipse,  and  the  isometric 
square  circumscribing  the  circle  must  always 


Fig.  153. 

be  drawn  first.  The  usual  construction  is  to 
make  a  four  centered  circle-arc  approxima- 
tion, finding  the  centers  for  the  arcs  by  draw- 
ing 60  degree  lines  from  the  corners  A  and  B 
to  the  middle  of  the  opposite  sides,  giving 
centers  A,  B,  C,  and  D  for  the  ellipse,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  152.     Thus  to  get  the  isometric 


of  any  circle-arc  the  isometric  square  of  its 
diameter  should  be  drawn  in  the  plane  of  the 
face  with  as  much  of  this  construction  as  is 
necessary  to  find  centers  for  the  part  of  the 
circle  needed.  Fig.  153  illustrates  this 
construction  on  the  isometric  of  a  shelf, 
which  has  been  drawn  with  reversed  axes  to 
show  the  under  side. 


Fia.  154. — An  isometric  section. 

Isometric  sections  as  illustrated  in  Fig. 
154  may  sometimes  be  used  to  good  advan- 
tage, the  cut  faces  always  being  taken  in 
isometric  planes. 

Oblique  Drawing. 

Oblique  drawing  is  similar  to  isometric  in 
having  three  axes  representing  three  mutu- 
ally perpendicular  lines  upon  which  meas- 
urements can  be  made.  It  differs  in  that 
two  of  the  axes  are  always  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  while  the  third,  or  cross  axis  may 
be  at  any  angle.  Fig.  155,  though  30  degrees 
is  generally  used.  Thus,  the  face  drawn  on 
the  plane  of  the  two  axes  at  right  angles  will 
appear  without  distortion,  a  circle  on  it  for 
example  showing  its  true  shape. 

This  gives  oblique  drawing  a  distinct 
advantage  over  isometric  for  the  represen- 
tation of  objects  with  curved  or  irregular 
outlines,  and  the  first  rule  would  be,  place 


PICTORIAL  DRAWING 


103 


the  object  with  the  irregular  outline  or  con-     the  apparent  distortion,  which  is  noticeable 

tour  on  the  front  plane.     Fig.  156.  both   in   oblique   and   isometric    drawings, 

If  there  is  no  irregular  outUne  the  second     objects  in  oblique  drawing  always  appearing 


Fig.  155. — Oblique  axes  illustrated. 

71 


/\/OT   THUS 


Fig.  156. — Illustration  of  first  rule. 


5 


5 


"g 


^ 


THUS 


NOT  THUS 
Fig.  157. — Illustration  of  second  rule. 


NOT  THUS 


Y> 


rule  should  be  followed — always  place  the  to  be  too  wide  or  thick.  Other  rules  for 
object  with  the  longest  dimension  parallel  drawing  in  oblique  are  similar  to  those  for 
to  the  front,  Fig.  157.     This  is  on  account  of     isometric. 


104 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Cabinet  Drawing. 

Cabinet  drawing  is  a  modification  of 
oblique  drawing  in  which  all  of  the  measure- 
ments parallel  to  the  cross  axis  are  reduced 
one-half,  in  an  attempt  to  overcome  the 
appearance  of  excessive  thickness.  Fig.  158 
illustrates  the  comparative  appearance  of  a 
figure  drawn  in  isometric,  oblique  and  cabi- 
net drawing. 

The  numerous  examples  of  pictorial  draw- 
ing used  in  illustration  and  explanation 
throughout  this  book  will  serve  to  suggest 
various  practical  applications  of  the  subject 
that  may  be  made  after  the  student  has 
acquired  a  facility  in  its  use. 


Keep  dimension  and  extension  lines  in  the 
plane  of  the  face. 

Do  not  confuse  the  drawing  with  dotted 
lines. 

Problems. 

The  following  problems  are  intended  to 
serve  two  purposes: 

1st,  for  practice  in  isometric  and  oblique 
drawing. 

2nd,  for  practice  in  reading  orthographic 
projection. 

In  reading  a  drawing  remember  that  a  line 
on  any  view  always  means  a  corner  or  edge 
and  that  one  must  always  look  at  the  other 


Fig.  158. — 'Isometric,  oblique,  and  cabinet  drawing  compared. 


Sketching. 

One  of  the  valuable  uses  of  isometric  and 
oblique  is  in  making  freehand  sketches, 
either  dimensioned  to  form  working  sketches, 
or  for  illustrating  some  object  or  detail  of 
construction.  The  following  points  should 
be  observed. 

Keep  the  axes  flat.  The  beginner's  mis- 
take is  in  spoiling  the  appearance  of  his 
sketch  by  getting  the  axes  too  steep. 

Keep  parallel  lines  parallel.  < 

Always  block  in  squares  before  sketching 
circles. 

In  isometric  drawing  remember  that  a 
circle  on  the  top  face  will  be  an  ellipse  with 
its  axis  horizontal. 


view  to  find  out  what  kind  of  a  corner  it  is. 
Do  not  try,  nor  expect  to  be  able,  to  read  a 
whole  drawing  at  one  glance. 

The  sketches  are  dimensioned,  and  it  is 
expected  that  some  will  be  made  as  finished 
drawings,  with  instruments,  while  others 
may  be  taken  as  reading  problems  to  be 
sketched  freehand.  This  translation  from 
orthographic  to  pictorial  form  is,  it  will  be 
noticed,  just  the  reverse  of  what  was  done 
in  our  preliminary  study  of  working  draw- 
ings, when,  in  Figs.  19,  20  and  21  we  made 
orthographic  projections  from  the  pictures. 

To  the  dimensions  and  scales  given,  a 
12"  X  18"  sheet  will  contain  any  four  of  the 
first  sixteen  problems,  thus  a  sheet  may  be 


PICTORIAL  DRAWING 


105 


// 


4- 


Fig.  159. — Angle  stop. 


Fig.  160. — Work  bench  drawer. 


/ 

§  HOLE 

\4 

i 

r 

■< 

II 

^ 

..  i 

I    •'     i 

J-U. 


^\\ 


<^> 


Fig.  161.— Button. 


^ 


Fig.  162. — Corner  plate. 


i 


± 


T 


Fig.  163.— Washer. 


Fig.  164. — Countersunk  washer. 


-13 


T 


/o^ 


1 


Fig.  165.— Shelf. 


106 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Fig.  166. — Comer  bracket. 


AUITEfflAL 

WHOUGHT  IffON    Off 


Fig.  168. — Bolster  stake  iron. 


LENGTH  TO  SU/T  SfAce: 
Fig.  167. — Section  of  barn  door  track 


Fig.  170.— Bench. 


PICTORIAL  DRAWING 


107 


M 


® 


Fig.  171. — Two  forms  of  saw  horse. 


made  up  of  Nos.  1,  3,  5  and  7,  or  an  alternate     pictorial  problems  such  as  24  and  25,  may  be 

of  2,  4,  6  and  8.     Selections  from  problems     made   from   the   problems   at   the   end    of 

^  ^—  —  ■  -       Chapter  III,  selecting  scale  to  fit  the  space 

allowed. 

PROBLEMS. 

1.  Isometric  drawing  of  angle  stop,  Fig.  159. 
Full  size. 

2.  Isometric  drawing  of  drawer,  Fig.  160.     Scale 

IK"  =  1'. 

3.  Isometric  drawing  of  button,  Fig.  161.  Full 
size. 

4.  Isometric  drawing  of  corner  plate.  Fig.  162. 
Full  size. 

5.  Isometric  section  of  washer,  Fig.  163.    Full  size. 

6.  Isometric  section  of  washer.  Fig.  164.    Full  size. 

7.  Isometric  drawing  of  shelf,  Fig.  165.  Scale 
6"  =  1'.  Use  reversed  axes  so  as  to  show  under 
side. 

8.  Isometric  drawing  of  corner  bracket,  Fig.  166. 


Fig.  172.— "A"  frame. 


17  to  22  may  be  placed  two  on  a  sheet,  and 
23  should  preferably  be  made  large  enough 
to  occupy  a  sheet  alone.     Numerous  other     Scale  3"  =  1'.    Use  reversed  axes 


Fig.  173.— Sheep  hurdle. 


108 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


9.  Oblique  drawing  of  section  of  bird-proof  track 
for  rolling  door.  Fig.  167.  Full  size.  Have  break 
line  follow  form  of  section. 

10.  Oblique  drawing  of  bolster  stake  iron,  Fig. 
168.     Scale  6"  =  1'. 

9i' 


Tr 

II 
1 1 

-H— 


/  Af/irSft/AL 


/O 


Fig.  174. — Bird  house. 


le/^TM  ro  St/I  T 


A 


Fig.  175. — Book  rack. 


13.  Isometric  drawing  of  horse,  Fig.  171.  Scale 
1"  =  1'.  Notice  construction  for  non-isometric 
lines. 

14.  Isometric  drawing  of  horse,  alternate  form 
B  of  Fig.  171.     Scale  1"  =  1'. 

15.  Oblique  drawing  of  land  level  frame,  Fig.  172. 
Scale  %"  =  !'. 

16.  Oblique  (or  isometric)  drawing  of  sheep 
hurdle,  Fig.  173.     Scale  y^"  =  V . 

17.  Oblique  (or  isometric)  drawing  of  bird  house, 
Fig.  174.     Scale  6"  =  1'. 

18.  Oblique  (or  isometric)  drawing  of  book  rack, 
Fig.  175.     Scale  6"  =  1'. 

19.  Oblique  (or  cabinet)  drawing  of  wheel.  Fig. 
176.     Scale  3"  =  1'. 

20.  Isometric  (or  oblique)  drawing  of  angle  brace, 
Fig.  177.     Full  size. 

21.  Isometric  (oblique  or  cabinet)  drawing  of 
kitchen  step  ladder.  Fig.  178.     Scale  3"  =  1'. 

22.  Isometric  (or  oblique)  drawing  of  stone  rake, 
Fig.  179.     Scale  %"  =  1'. 

23.  Oblique  (isometric  or  cabinet)  drawing  of 
two-till  tool  chest,  Fig.  180.  Scale  3"  =  1'.  Draw 
with  lid  open,  or  break  out  a  section,  in  order  to 
show  interior. 

24.  Isometric  or  oblique  drawing  of  milking  stool, 
Fig.  75. 

25.  Isometric  or  oblique  drawing  of  gang  mold,, 
Fig.  77. 


11.  Oblique    (or  isometric)  drawing  of  spreader 
for  concrete  forms.     Fig.  169.     Scale  3"  =  1'. 

12.  Oblique  (or  isometric)  drawing  of  bench,  Fig. 
170.     Scale  1^"  =  1'. 


The  objects  of  Fig.  181  are  to  be  sketched' 
freehand  in  the  most  suitable  pictorial 
system. 


Fig.  176. — Wooden  wheelbarrow  wheel. 


PICTORIAL  DRAWING 


109 


Fig.  177. — Angle  brace. 


Fig.  178. — Kitchen  step-ladder. 


no 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


■  e'-o"- 


\or>cl  /ocir  nut. 


£ 


4-0" 


eye  Ao/Z-s /orpi///-       ,      2-g  xy  8oJ/s  with  n'osherj 


tvashurs 


S-i'6    Bo/fJ  wifh- 
waahtrt 


Fig.  179. — Stone  rake. 


J'l 


?=T 


"«^iTj- 


r  ^ 


--^-^  ^    ^^ 


_5 


ji? 


\%/y>/y'^/////^y^^/y>^yJyyy  /  /i^jls 


—  /5 


77/./.^   TO  0£  MAP£  OF^  A7/iT£R/Al. 

Fig.  180. — Tool  chest. 


PICTORIAL  DRAWING 


111 


ff 


!SlIi>ii\»l*I'^ 


rr 
II 
n 
o      i; 


i=XP=^ 


0-- 


C     r- 

- 

- 

- 

F 


Fig.  181. — Reading  problems. 


CHAPTER  VII 


CONSTRUCTION  DATA 


In  designing  structures,  and  preparing 
working  drawings  and  specifications,  the 
designer  needs  certain  information  as 
to  materials  and  commercial  practice.  A 
number  of  tables,  and  items  of  miscellaneous 
information  are  assembled  in  this  chapter, 
for  ready  reference;  and  as  suggestions  in 
their  use  a  few  problems  are  appended. 
Stock  and  Commercial  Sizes. 

For  economy,  and  avoidance  of  trouble 
in  procuring,  stock  sizes  of  materials  should 
be  used  as  far  as  possible.  As  these  com- 
mercial sizes  and  standards  vary  somewhat 
in  different  parts  of  the  country,  one  should 
be  sure  that  grades  and  sizes  of  any  mate- 
rials specified  are  locally  recognized,  and 
obtainable. 

Lumber. 

Lumber  comes  in  standard  lengths  of 
10-0",  12'-0",  14'-0",  etc.,  up  to  24'-0". 
Over  24'-0"  and  under  lO'-O"  is  special. 

In  width  and  thickness  the  following 
nominal  sizes  are  obtainable. 

Thickness 

1" 

2" 

3"  (local) 

4" 

6" 

8" 

10" 

12" 

14"...- 


Width 

4", 

6", 

8", 

10", 

12" 

4", 

6", 

8", 

10", 

12" 

4", 

6", 

8", 

10", 

etc., to  16" 

4", 

6", 

8", 

10", 

12",    14" 

6", 

8", 

10", 

12", 

14",    16" 

10", 

12", 

14" 

10", 

12", 

14", 

16" 

12", 

14", 

16" 

14", 

16" 

These  sizes  are  called  nominal,  as  the 
actual  measurement  varies  with  different 
woods  and  in  different  localities.  A  piece 
of  2"  X  4"  Y.P.,  for  example,  may  be  not 
larger  than  1^"  or  1%"  X  3^^". 

Dressed  lumber  is  indicated  SIS,  S2S, 
S4S,  according  as  it  is  surfaced  on  one  side, 
both  sides,  or  all  over.  A  1"  SIS  board  is 
thus  i%6"  thick,  and  an  S2S,  J4"  thick. 


Shingles  are  termed  ^  or  ^^  according  as 
5  butts  or  6  butts  measure  2"  thick.  They 
are  16"  long,  and  there  are  4  packs  to  M 
(the  letter  M  is  always  used  for  1000.). 

Mill  Work  means  work  prepared  at  the 
planing  mill.  It  is  charged  for  by  the  linear 
foot,  or  by  the  piece. 

Doors  have  standard  thicknesses  of  13^", 
1%"  and  1^".  Their  widths  and  heights 
vary  in  even  two  inches. 

Sash  has  the  same  standard  thicknesses 
as  doors,  and  is  specified  by  the  glass  sizes. 
To  obtain  the  width  of  frame  add  43^"  to 
the  glass  width  for  a  2-light  window,  and 
for  the  length  add  6"  to  the  length  of  the 
two  panes. 

Windows  are  made  either  "check  rail," 
"plain  rail,"  or  "casement."  An  order 
would  read  2  Lt,  24"  X  24"  X  1%  D.S. 

Glass  comes  in  single  and  double  strength 
window  glass,  plate  glass  of  different 
thicknesses,  and  a  variety  of  obscure  glass, 
such  as  "frosted,"  "chipped,"  "Florentine," 
etc.  Sizes  run  in  inches  as  6  X  8;  7  X  9; 
8  X  10;  8  X  12;  etc. 

Sheet  Metal  is  sold  by  gauge  number  10 
to  30  (thick  to  thin).  Galvanized  iron  runs 
in  size  from  24"  X  72",  the  widths  advanc- 
ing by  2"  to  30",  then  by  6"  to  48",  and  the 
lengths  by  12"  to  120".  Tin  comes  in 
two  weights  IC  and  IX,  of  which  the  lat- 
ter is  heavier,  and  in  sizes  20"  X  28"  and 
14"  X  20". 

Wire  is  measured  by  wire  gauge  number, 
00  to  36,  thick  to  thin. 

Pipe  is  measured  by  the  nominal  inside 
diameter,  as  explained  on  page  32.  It 
comes  in  lengths  of  about  20  ft.  and  either 
plain  or  galvanized.  Screws,  nails,  etc., 
are  too  various  to  be  enumerated.  One  not 
familiar  with  the  trade  sizes  and  classifica- 
112 


CONSTRUCTION  DATA 


113 


tions  should  at  once  become  so,  with  the 
assistance  of  a  hardware  store  man. 

Rope  is  measured  by  its  largest  diameter, 
and  specified  by  its  number  of  strands,  as 
3  strand  or  4  strand.  The  best  sash  cord  is 
braided. 

Drain  Tile  comes  in  lengths  12"  and  24". 
The  smallest  practical  size  is  3",  and  diame- 
ters advance  by  inches  up  to  10"  then  by 
2"  up  to  24". 

Slate  is  sold  by  the  square,  100  sq.  ft. 
There  are  various  kinds  and  grades.  Widths 
advance  by  inches  and  lengths  by  two  inches. 

Metal  Roofing  comes  in  sheets  or  rolls, 
the  sizes  the  same  as  galvanized  iron. 

Ready  Roofing  comes  under  various  trade 
names,  and  is  usually  a  composition  of 
bituminous  or  resinous  compounds  and  felt 
or  paper.  It  is  sometimes  coated  with 
coarse  sand  or  slate.  It  is  sold  in  rolls  of 
108  sq.  ft.,  making  one  square  with  allow- 
ance for  laps. 

Weight  of  Roofing. 

The  approximate  weights  of  different  roof 
coverings  are  needed  in  determining  the 
strength  of  rafters.  The  snow  load,  and 
wind  pressure  are  also  factors  to  be  added 
in  figuring  roofs,  and  an  important  problem 
should  not  be  attempted  without  assistance. 

Shingles  run  about  250  lbs.  per  square. 
Slate  750  to  900,  tile  1100  to  1400,  ready 
roofing  40  to  150,  galvanized  iron  100  to 
300. 

Weights  of  Materials. 

The  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  different 
materials  is  often  required.  The  following 
table  gives  the  weight  of  some  of  the  com- 
mon materials. 

Lbs.  per  cu.  ft. 

Oak 52 

Yellow  pine 45 

White  pine 25 

Hemlock 25 

Maple 49 

Brick  (average) 125 

Concrete  (average) 140 


Sand,  dry 

Sand,  wet 

Gravel 

Cast  iron 

Wrought  iron. 

Granite , 

Ice 

Water 


Lbs.  per  cu.  ft. 

95 
130 
130 
450 
480 
170 

53 

62.5 


A  gallon  of  water  weighs  S}i  lbs.  and  contains 
231  cu.  inches. 

Space  Required  for  Storage. 

Hay,  one  ton  occupies  512  cu.  ft. 

Straw,  one  ton  occupies  600  to  800  cu.  ft. 

Hay,  pressed,  25  lbs.  per  cu.  ft. 

Small  grain,  1  bu.  =  IK  cu.  ft. 

Corn  on  cob,  1  bu.  =  2}^  cu.  ft. 

Space  Required  for  Farm  Implements. 

The  following  table  gives  the  over-all 
allowance  for  some  common  implements. 
Add  to  the  list  for  your  own  requirements. 

Side  delivery  rake 10^'  X  12' 

Corn  planter 6 

Mower 6 

Hay  loader 9 

Rake  (common  2  horse) 5 

30  H.P.  tractor 8 

Corn  cultivator 5 

Corn  binder 9 

Grain  binder  (7  ft.  cut) 9 

Manure  spreader 8 

Grain  drill  (8  hoe) 5 

Roller 

Ration  for  Beef  Feeders. 

12  lbs.  shelled  corn 
2  lbs.  cotton  seed  meal 
20  lbs.  corn  silage 
5  lbs.  clover  or  alfalfa 

per  1000  lbs.  weight  of  live  animal. 

Table  for  the  Selection  of  Native  Woods. 

The  following  list  gives  the  suitable  woods 
for  different  purposes,  arranged  somewhat  in 
the  order  of  their  desirability  and  availability. 

Light    framing — hemlock,    poplar,    spruce,    oak. 

Heavy  framing — yellow  pine,  oak. 

Joists — yellow  pine,  oak,  redwood. 

Siding — cypress,    redwood,    yellow    pine,  poplar. 

Shingles — cypress,  red  cedar,  redwood,  white 
cedar,  pine. 


'      X5' 

'       X  6' 

'       X  lOM' 

X  10' 

'       X  11' 

'       X  17'  X  12' 

'       X    7' 

'       X  14' 

'       X  14' 

'       X  16' 

'       X    9' 

'       X    3' 

114 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Flooring — oak,  maple,  edge  grain  yellow  pine, 
birch  (cypress  for  porch). 

Interior  finish — oak,  birch,  cypress,  yellow  pine; 
cherry,  walnut,  mahogany,  etc. 

Tanks — cypress,  redwood,  fir. 

Fence  posts — (in  order  of  durability)  osage 
orange,  black  locust,  red  cedar,  mulberry,  white 
cedar,  catalpa,  chestnut,  oak,  black  ash. 

Vehicles — hickory,  oak,  ash. 

Strength  of  Timbers. 

The  following  tables  give  the  safe  load  in 
pounds  that  can  be  carried  by  long  leaf 
yellow  pine  timbers,  as  figured  from  the 
formulas  indicated.  To  find  the  compara- 
tive strength  of  other  kinds  of  wood  take 
75%  of  the  amount  for  white  oak;  60% 
for  white  pine  and  55  %  for  hemlock. 

Table  I 
Beam  fixed  at  one  end  and  concentrated  load  at 
the   other   end.     Formula    W  —      .j    ,    where   W 

is  the  safe  load  in  lbs.,  B  the  breadth  of  the  beam 
in  inches,  D  its  depth  in  inches  and  L  its  length  in 
feet.  A  is  the  constant,  100  for  yellow  pine,  and  as 
indicated  above,  75  for  white  oak,  etc. 


Table  II 

Beam  fixed  at  one  end  and  uniformly  loaded. 

„  ,     „^       BD^A 

J^ormula  W  =  —^ — 


B 

D 

L 

w 

2 

4 

•4 

400 

2 

8 

4 

1600 

*  (Continued.) 

1 

*  The  values  of  W  in  this  table  are  evidently  just 
double  those  of  Table  I. 


Table  III 
Beam    supported   at    both   ends   and  uniformly 
loaded.     JormulaTr   =  -" — r — 


B,  in. 

D,  in. 

L,  feet 

W,  pounds 

2 

4 

4 

200 

2 

6 

4 

450 

2 

8 

4 

800 

3 

4 

4 

300 

3 

6 

4 

675 

3 

8 

4 

1200 

3 

8 

6 

800 

4 

4 

4 

400 

4 

6 

4 

900 

4 

6 

6 

600 

4 

6 

8 

450 

4 

8 

6 

1066 

4 

8 

8 

800 

6 

6 

6 

900 

6 

6 

8 

675 

6 

6 

10 

540 

6 

8 

6 

1600 

6 

8 

8 

1200 

6 

8 

10 

960 

6 

10 

10 

1500 

8 

10 

10 

2000 

8 

10 

12 

1666 

8 

12 

10 

2880 

8 

12 

12 

2400 

10 

12 

10 

3600 

B,  in. 

D,  in. 

L,  feet 

W,  lbs. 

2 

4 

,  8 

800 

2 

4 

10 

640 

2 

4 

12 

532 

2 

6 

12 

1200 

2 

8 

12 

2132 

2 

10 

12 

3332 

2 

10 

14 

-2856 

*2 

10 

16 

2500 

no 

2 

4 

2000 

2 

12 

12 

4800 

3 

8 

12 

3200 

3 

10 

12 

5000 

3 

12 

12 

7200 

3 

12 

16 

4800 

4 

8 

12 

4266 

4 

10 

12 

6666 

4 

12 

12 

9600 

6 

8 

12 

6400 

6 

10 

12 

10000 

6 

12 

12 

14400 

8 

8 

12 

8532 

8 

10 

12 

13332 

8 

12 

12 

19200 

8 

12 

16 

14400 

10 

12 

12 

24000 

10 

12 

16 

18000 

*  Note  difference  between  edgewise  and  flat. 


CONSTRUCTION  DATA 


115 


Table  IV 
Beam  supported  at  both  ends,  with  concentrated 
load  in  the  middle.     Formula  W  =  — j — 


B 

D 

L 

w 

2 

4 

10 

320 

2 

4 

12 

266 

*  (Continued.) 

1 

*  The  values  of  W  in  this  table  are  evidently 
one-half  of  those  in  Table  III. 

Concrete. 

The  following  table  will  serve  as  a  guide  as 
to  the  proportions  of  cement,  sand  and  stone 
used  in  making  concrete  for  different  pur- 
poses. It  also  gives  the  amounts  of  each 
in  a  cubic  yard  of  concrete  of  the  different 
mixtures,  which  is  necessary  to  have  in 
figuring  the  quantities  needed  for  a  piece  of 
work. 


Table  V 


Proportions 

Cement, 
bbl. 

Sand, 
cu.  yd. 

Stone, 
cu.  yd. 

Use 

Cement 

Sand 

Stone 

2 

3 

1.70 

0.52 

0.77 

(A) 

2 

4 

1.46 

0.44 

0.89 

(B) 

2M 

5 

1.19 

0.46 

0.91 

(C) 

3 

6 

1.01 

0.46 

0.92 

(D) 

4 

8 

0.77 

0.47 

0.93 

(E) 

(A)  1:2:3  for  tanks;  silos;  reinforced  beams  and 
columns;  fence  posts. 

{B)  1:2:4  for  concrete  blocks;  piers;  silos;  small 
culverts;  foundations;  single  course  walks. 

(C)  1:2>^:5  for  stable  floors;  foundation  walls 
(light). 

(D)  1:3:6  for  footings;  barnyard  paving;  first 
course  of  two  course  walks. 

(E)  1:4:8  for  footings ;  mass  work  where  great 
strength  is  not  required. 

{F)  Top  course  of  two-course  floors  and  walks 
made  of  1:2  cement  and  sand. 

Cement  is  usually  sold  in  sacks  of  96  lbs.  or  4 
sacks  =  1  bbl. 


Silos  and  Silage. 

The  following  table  gives  the  capacities 
in  tons  of  silos  of  different  sizes;  the  approxi- 
mate number  of  acres  required  to  fill  each 
size;  the  number  of  cows,  on  a  40  lb.  ration, 
to  keep  the  ensilage  fed  down  the  minimum 
amount  per  day;  and  the  capacity  in  number 
of  cows,  based  on  180  days  feed  with  40 
lb.  ration. 

All  data  refers  to  settled  ensilage. 

Table  VI 


Diam., 
feet. 

Height, 
feet. 

Capy., 

tons 

No.  acres 
to  fill 

No.  cows, 
to  feed 
off   2" 

No.  cows 

for  180 

days  feed 

10 

20 

26 

3-  5 

13 

7 

10 

30 

47 

5-  8 

13 

13 

10 

32 

51 

6-  8 

13 

14 

11 

•    32 

62 

7-10 

15 

16 

12 

32 

74 

8-10 

19 

21 

12 

36 

87 

9-12 

19 

24 

14 

30 

91 

9-12 

25 

25 

14 

34 

109 

11-15 

25 

30 

14 

38 

128 

11-16 

25 

35 

16 

32 

131 

12-17 

33 

36 

16 

36 

155 

15-21 

33 

43 

16 

40 

180 

16-22 

33 

50 

16 

44 

207 

18-26 

33 

55 

Sunshine  Table. 

Table  VII  is  compiled  from  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  438,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  is  of  use  in  designing  swine 
houses,  in  showing  the  relation  between 
windows  and  width  of  pen  so  that  the  sun's 
rays  may  strike  the  floor.  A  is  the  height 
of  top  of  window,  and  B  the  horizontal  dis- 
tance from  window  to  rear  of  pen. 

Dairy  Score  Card. 

The  score  card  for  dairy  inspection  given 
on  the  next  page  will  be  of  value  in  checking 
the  plans  of  a  dairy  barn,  or  in  examining  an 
existing  plant.  It  is  printed  in  Circular  199, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry. 


11« 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Dairy  Score  Card 


Equipment 


Score 


Perfect     Allowed 


Methods 


Score 


Perfect    Allowed 


Cows 

Health 

Apparently  in  good  health 1 

If  tested  with  tuberculin  within  a  year 
and  no  tuberculosis  is  found,  or  if 
tested  within  six  months  and  all  re- 
acting animals  removed 5 

(If  tested  within  a  year  and  react- 
ing animals  are  found  and 
removed,  3.) 

Food  (clean  and  wholesome) 

Water  (clean  and  fresh) 


Stables 


Location  of  stable 

Well  drained 1 

Free   from   contaminating   surround- 
ings     1 

Construction  of  stable 

Tight,  sound  floor  and  proper  gutter.   2 

Smooth,  tight  walls  and  ceiling 1 

Proper  stall,  tie,  and  manger 1 

Provision  for  light:  Four  sq.  ft.  of  glass 

per  cow 

(Three  sq.  ft.,  3;  2  sq.  ft.,  2;  1  sq.  ft., 
1.  Deduct  for  uneven  distribu- 
tion.) 

Bedding 

Ventilation 

Provision  for  fresh   air,   controllable 

flue  system 3 

(Windows  hinged  at  bottom,  1.5; 
sliding  windows,  1 ;  other  open- 
ings, 0.5.) 

Cubic  feet  of  space  per  cow  500  ft 

(Less  than  500  ft.,  2;  less  than  400 
ft.,  1;  less  than  300  ft.,  0.) 
Provision    for     controlling    tempera- 
ture      1 

Utensils 
Construction  and  condition  of  utensils.  .  .  . 

Water  for  cleaning 

(Clean,  convenient,  and  abundant.) 

Small-top  milking  pail 

Milk  cooler 

Clean  milking  suits 


Milk  Room  or  Milk  House 

Location:  Free  from  contaminating  sur- 
roundings  

Construction  of  milk  room 

Floor,  walls,  and  ceiling 1 

Light,  ventilation,  screens 1 

Separate  rooms  for  washing  utensils  and 
handling  milk 

Facilities  for  steam 

(Hot  water,  0.5.) 

Total 


40 


Cows 

Clean 

(Free  from  visible  dirt,  6.) 

Stables 

Cleanliness  of  stables 

Floor 2 

Walls 1 

Ceiling  and  ledges 1 

Mangers  and  partitions 1 

Windows 1 

Stable  air  at  milking  time 

Freedom  from  dust 3 

Freedom  from  odors 2 

Cleanliness  of  bedding 

Barnyard 

Clean 1 

Well  drained 1 

Removal    of   manure   daily   to   50   feet 
from  stable 


Milk  Room  ob  Milk  House 
Cleanliness  of  milk  room 


Utensils  and  Milking 

Care  and  cleanliness  of  utensils 

Thoroughly  washed 2 

Sterilized  in  steam  for  15  minutes.  .  .    3 
(Placed  over  steam  jet,  or  scalded 
with  boiling  water,  2.) 

Protected  from  contamination 3 

Cleanliness  of  milking 

Clean,  dry  hands 3 

Udders  washed  and  wiped 6 

(Udders  cleaned  with  moist  cloth, 
4;  cleaned  with  dry  cloth  or 
brush  at  least  15  minutes  before 
milking,  1.) 

Handling  the  Milk 

Cleanliness  of  attendants  in  milk  room .  .  .  . 
Milk  removed  immediately  from  stable 

without  pouring  from  pail 

Cooled  immediately  after  milking  each 

cow 

Cooled  below  SOT 

(51°  to  55°,  4;  56°  to  60°,  2.) 
Stored  below  50°  F 

(51°  to  55°,  2;  56°  to  60°,  1.) 
Transportation  below  50°  F 

(51°  to  55°,  1.5;  56°  to  60°,  1.) 

(If  delivered  twice  a  day,  allow  per- 
fect score  for  storage  and  trans- 
portation.) 


Total 


60 


Equipment +  Methods = Final     Score. 

Note   1. — If  any  exceptionally  filthy  condition  is  found,  particularly  dirty  utensils,  the  total  score  may  be  further  limited. 

Note  2. — If  the  water  is  exposed  to  dangerous  contamination,  or  there  is  evidence  of  the  presence  of  a  dangerous  disease  in 
animals  or  attendants,  the  score  shall  be  0. 


CONSTRUCTION  DATA 
Table  VII. — Sun  in  Rear  at  10  a.  m.  and  2  p.  m. 


117 


Jan. 

1st 

Feb. 

l8t 

Mar. 

1st 

Apr.  1st 

Lat. 

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

4'-10" 

lO'-O" 

6'-4" 

lO'-O" 

9'-4" 

10' 

15'-6" 

10' 

38°N. 

5'-10" 

12' 

7'-7" 

12' 

11 '-3" 

12' 

18'-7" 

12' 

4'-5" 

10' 

5'-10" 

10' 

8'-9" 

10' 

14'-4" 

10' 

40°N. 

5'-4" 

12' 

7'-0" 

12' 

10'-6" 

12' 

17'-2" 

12' 

■  * 

4'-0" 

10' 

5'-5" 

10' 

8'-2" 

10' 

13 '-4" 

10' 

42°N. 

4'-10" 

12' 

6'-6" 

12' 

9'-9" 

12' 

16'-0" 

12' 

3'-7" 

10' 

4'-ll" 

10' 

7'-7" 

10' 

12'-5" 

10' 

44°N. 

4'-4" 

12' 

5'-ll" 

12' 

9'-l" 

12' 

14'-11" 

12' 

3'-3" 

10' 

4'-6" 

10' 

7'-0" 

10' 

ll'-6" 

10' 

46°N. 

3'-10" 

12' 

5'-5" 

12' 

8'-5" 

12' 

13'-10" 

12' 

2'-10" 

10' 

4'-l" 

10' 

6'-6" 

10' 

10'-9" 

10' 

48°N. 

3'-5" 

12' 

4'-ll" 

12' 

7'-10" 

12' 

12'-11" 

12' 

Kitchen  Score  Card. 

The  kitchen  score  card  given  may  be  used 
in  connection  with  the  planning  of  a  new 
kitchen  or  in  remodeUng  an  old  one.  In 
this  method  of  judging,  the  ideal  kitchen 
would  score  100  points,  and  cuts  are  made 
under  each  of  the  four  heads  for  any  items 
failing  to  reach  the  standard  indicated. 
Some  of  these  depend  on  actual  measure- 
ments, while  others  are  matters  of  judgment. 


(Kitchen  score  card,  cont.). 


Kitchen  at    

Scored  by   

3 

o 

3 

0 
o 

I.  Plan— 35  Points. 

1 — Arrangement  of  space  for  equip- 
ment  

15 
15 

Sink — convenience    of;    Stove — 
convenience  of;  Table — conven- 
ience of. 

2 — Storage 

Stores  Pantry,  size,  convenience; 

Serving  Pantry,  convenience; 
Refrigerator,  convenience;  Shelv 
ing,  adequate;  Clock  Shelf. 
Distances — If  any  two  (sink, 
table,  stove,  pantry)  are  farther 
apart  than  12  ft.,  cut  }4  pt-  for 
each  ft. 

3 — Doors 

If  more  than  4,cut  1  point  for  each. 
Outside  door  direct  to   covered 
porch,  if  no  covered  porch,  cut. 
Door    to    Dining    Room    double 
swung  if  direct. 
Accessibility  to  front  door. 
Accessibility  to  upstairs. 
Accessibility  to  cellar. 
If  rear  stairs  go  up  from  Kitchen, 
3pts. 

11.  Light  and  Ventilation 

Two  exposures;  if  only  one  cut  5 
points. 


25 


118 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


{Kitchen  score  card,  cont.). 


Glass  area  =  20%  of  floor  area, 

cut  1  point  for  each  1%  under. 

Window  in  Pantry,  cut  2  pts.  if 

none. 

Satisfactory  daylight — at  stove, 

at  sink,  at  table,  3  points  each. 

Satisfactory    artificial    light — at 

stove,  at  sink,  at  table,  3  points 

each. 

Transom  on  outside  door,  1  point. 

Height  of  sills — If  under  34"  cut 

1  point. 

Ventilating  hood  or  flue — 1  point. 

III.  Floors  and  Walls — 10  Points. 

1 — Floor  Resilient  and  grease  proof. 
Hardwood,  Monolith  or  Lino- 
leum, O.  K. 

Cut  for  cracks,  softwood,  oil  cloth 
carpet,  etc. 

2— Walls 

Light,  cheerful,  sanitary. 

Cut  for  wall  paper  or  dark  color 

3 — Woodwork 

Cut  for  dust  catching  mouldings 

or  projections — 1  point. 

Cut  for  wood  wainscot — 1  point. 

IV.  Equipment — 30  points. 

1 — Stove — adequate   size   and    con 

dition 

If  oven  is  less  than  10"  from  floor 

cut  1  pt.  per  inch. 

If  no  broiler,  cut  2  points. 

If  no  thermometer,  cut  1  point. 
2— Sink 

Enamel  or  Porcelain  O.  K. 

Cut  for  iron,  tin,  etc.,  3  points. 

Drainboard  double,  cut  3  points 

if  single. 

Splashboard,  cut  2  points  if  wood 
3— Table 

Size — cut  1  pt.  if  smaller  than  6 

sq.  ft. 

Height — cut    1    pt.    if    uncom- 
fortable. 
4 — Refrigerator 

Size,  material,  condition,drainage 

5 — Fireless  Cooker 

6 — Chair  and  stool 

Total 


12 


100 


If  no  water  in  Kitchen,  cut  40  points. 
If  no  hot  water  in  Kitchen,  cut  20  points. 
If  Kitchen  is  used  as  Laundry,  cut  15  points. 

Remarks 


Suggestions  for  Improvement 


Estimating. 

In  making  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  a 
proposed  structure,  there  are  two  general 
methods,  the  approximate  estimate,  and  the 
detailed  estimate. 

Approximate  estimates  are  used  for  de- 
termining the  size  possible  for  a  given 
cost,  or  for  getting  the  approximate  cost 
after  preHminary  sketches  are  made.  The 
methods  are  based  on  a  knowledge  of  the 
cost  of  similar  structures,  and  are  fairly- 
accurate  and  reliable  if  all  conditions,  such 
as  the  relative  cost  of  labor  and  materials, 
are  known. 

The  cubic  method  is  the  one  generally 
used.  It  consists  simply  in  figuring  the 
cubic  contents  of  the  entire  building,  meas- 
uring to  the  outside  of  the  walls,  and  mul- 
tiplying by  a  unit  price  per  cubic  foot, 
which  has  been  determined  by  dividing  the 
cost  of  one,  or  a  number  of  similar  structures 
by  the  number  of  cubic  feet  contained. 

The  following  list  of  unit  costs  may  be 
taken  as  giving  safe  general  averages  at 
the  present  time.  The  cost  of  building  is 
steadily  increasing,  with  the  rise  in  prices  of 
materials  and  labor,  and  a  house  built  for 
8  or  lOf^  ten  years  ago  would  run  12  to  18^ 
now. 

Dwellings,  small  frame,  no  plumbing 5  to  6 

"       •  frame,  good    "  "        8  to  9 

"  "       plumbing,  heating,  etc ...  10  to  12 

"  brick,  plain,  complete 12  to  15 

"      good  "        15  to  20 

Barns,  small 3  to  4 

"      large  (with  stables) 4  to  5 


CONSTRUCTION  DATA 


119 


Other  approximate  methods  for  pre- 
liminary estimates  are  the  square  foot 
method,  based  on  the  area  in  square  feet 
covered  by  the  plan,  and  the  unit  methods 
of  cost  per  room,  per  animal  to  be  housed, 
or  per  ton  of  material  to  be  stored.  Average 
costs  per  unit  are  listed  below. 

Unit  costs 

Dwellings,  per  sq.  ft $1.50  to  $10.00 

Stables,  complete,  per  sq.  ft $2 .  50  to  $  3.25 

Dairy  barns  (large),  per  sq.  ft $1 .50  to  $  2.00 

Residences,  per  room $400 .  00 

Stables  (horse  or  dairy),  per  animal .  $200 .  00 

Swine  houses,  per  pen $25 .00 

Hay  storage  barns,  per  ton  capacity.  $12 .  00 

Silos,  per  ton  capacity $1 .  50  to  $4 .  50 

Concrete  floors  and  walks,  per  sq.  ft.         7  to  12fi 
Concrete  work  in  place  (no  forms), 

per  cu.  yd $5.00 

Concrete  work  in  place  (forms),  per 

cu.  yd $5 .00  to  $10 .00 

Concrete  work  in  place  (reinforced), 

per  cu.  yd $8.00  to  $10.00 

Detailed  Estimates. 

The  accurate  method  of  estimating  is  to 
"take  off"  from  the  finished  drawings,  the 
amounts  of  all  the  different  materials  enter- 
ing into  the  structure,  and  with  ascertained 
local  prices  on  materials  and  labor,  add  the 
totals  of  the  cost  of  each  item  in  place.  To 
this  total  should  be  added  say  10%  for  con- 
tingencies, and  in  the  case  of  a  general  con- 
tractor, 10%  for  profits. 

Materials  are  measured  in  the  following 
units  of  measurement. 

Lumber Feet  of  board  measure 

(B.M.  =  1"  X  12"  X  12") 

Brick Thousand  (M) 

Brick    work sq.    ft.    wall    surface 

Stone  work cu.  ft.  (or  sometimes  cord  or  perch) 

Concrete  and  masonry cu.  yd. 

Excavation cu.  yd. 

Roofing square    (100  sq.  ft.) 

Paint square 

Shingles thousand 

Cement bbl.  (4  sacks) 

Sand,  gravel  and  crushed  stone yd.  (cu.  yd.) 

(sometimes  sold  by  the  ton) 


As  a  general  guide  to  present  prices,  the 
following  figures,  from  actual  costs,  were 
used  in  the  estimate  of  the  dairy  barn  whose 
plans  were  given  in  Figs.  112  to  115.  All 
figures  refer  to  work  in  place. 

Excavation $0 .  30  per  cu.  yd. 

Foundation $7 .  20  per  cu.  yd. 

Concrete  floor $0.11  per  sq.  ft. 

Frame $35.40  per  M 

Floor $25.40  per  M 

Sheathing $30.54  per  M 

Windows,  average $5 .  68  each 

Doors $0 .  48  per  sq.  ft. 

Siding $59.00  per  M 

Slate $11.00  per  sq. 

Painting $2.25  per  sq. 

The  total  cost  of  barn  as  estimated  is 
$4320.00.  In  .a  cubic  estimate  this  would 
give  5^  per  cubic  foot,  or  $2.00  per  square 
foot. 


Heating,   Lighting,   Ventilation,   Plumbing, 
and  Sewage  Disposal. 

It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  book  to 
discuss  these  subjects,  except  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  need  of  considering  them  care- 
fully in  connection  with  the  planning  and 
design  of  farm  structures,  and  to  provide 
on  the  drawings  for  the  systems  pro- 
posed. 

Thus  in  planning  a  residence  we  have  to 
decide  whether  stoves  and  fireplaces  will 
be  used  for  heating,  and  if  so  to  see  that  flues 
and  chimneys  are  arranged  in  the  most 
convenient  and  economical  way;  or  if  a  hot- 
air  or  hot-water  furnace  is  to  be  installed, 
to  place  furnace  and  fuel  rooms  to  the  best 
advantage  for  runs  of  pipe  and  location  of 
air  intake,  and  to  locate  registers  or  radiators 
where  desired  in  each  room. 

In  lighting,  if  gas  or  electric  plants  are 
to  be  installed,  suitable  provision  must  be 
made  and  shown  on  the  plans  for  location 
and  outlets.  The  advantage  of  an  inde- 
pendent electric  plant  for  both  light   and 


120 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


power  for  the  entire  farmstead  should  be 
considered,  particularly  if  water  power  is 
obtainable. 

The  ventilation  of  dairy  and  horse  barns 
has  already  been  referred  to,  and  is  a  very 
important  consideration  in  modern  con- 
struction. King's  ''Ventilation"  should  be 
procured  and  studied. 

It  is  not  usual  in  residence  construction 
to  provide  a  ventilating  system,  except  as 
fresh  air  is  introduced  through  furnace  reg- 
isters. The  open  fireplace  has  a  distinct 
value  as  a  ventilator,  apart  from  its  senti- 
mental value  as  the  spot  about  which  home 
memories  cluster. 

A  ventilating  flue  and  hood  is  a  desirable 
addition  to  the  kitchen. 

In  planning  for  plumbing,  pipes  should  be 
on  inside  walls  if  possible,  and  should  for 
economy  be  kept  in  vertical  runs.  Thus  the 
bath  room  is  best  located  somewhere  over 
the  kitchen.  There  are  various  state  codes 
to  be  observed  regarding  soil  pipes,  vents, 
etc. 

In  sewage  disposal  the  advantage  of  the 
septic  tank  has  already  been  referred  to. 
The  dangerous  cesspool  should  be  abandoned. 
A  general  estimate  of  $30.00  per  person  for 
a  family  of  ordinary  size  may  be  made  in 
figuring  the  cost  of  an  approved  type. 

Blue  Printing. 

Practically  all  working  drawings  are  made 
in  pencil  on  detail  paper  and  traced  on  trac- 
ing cloth,  a  transparentized  fabric,  or  some- 
times on  tracing  paper.  These  tracings  are 
blue-printed  by  exposing  a  piece  of  sensitized 
paper  in  contact  with  the  tracing  to  sun- 
light or  electric  light  in  a  printing  frame 
made  for  the  purpose.  The  resulting  print 
has  white  lines  on  a  blue  ground.  Any 
number  of  prints  may  be  taken  from  one 
tracing.  Blue  print  paper  is  bought  ready 
sensitized  and  may  be  had  in  different 
weights  and  degrees  of  rapidity. 

To  make  a  blue  print,  lay  the  tracing  in 


the  frame  with  inked  side  toward  the  glass 
and  place  the  unexposed  paper  on  it  with  the 
sensitized  surface  against  the  tracing,  Fig. 
182.  Lock  up  in  the  frame,  seeing  that  no 
corners  are  turned  under,  and  expose  to 
sunlight  for  from  one-half  to  three  minutes, 
depending  upon  the  speed  of  the  paper. 
Then  take  out  exposed  paper  and  put  it  in  a 
bath  of  water  for  about  five  minutes,  and 
hang  up  to  dry. 

In  almost  any  town  one  is  able  to  have 
blue  prints  made  at  comparatively  slight 
cost. 

Problems. 

The  following  problems  are  suggestive  of 
a  large  number  that  can  be  made,  using 
the  data  given,  either  alone  or  in  con- 
nection with  the  illustrations  or  problems 
in  Chapters  III  and  IV. 

PROBLEMS. 

1.  Hay  is  taken  in  at  the  end  of  a  barn  in  loads 
varying  from  500  to  1200  pounds.  The  track  is 
supported  by  a  yellow  pine  timber  projecting  6'-0" 
without  support.     What  should  its  dimensions  be? 

2.  A  grain  bin  with  a  capacity  of  500  bushels  of 
wheat  is  12'-0"  X  8'-0".  The  joists  are  of  white 
pine  spaced  12"  from  center  to  center.  How  large 
must  they  be  to  support  the  load  safely? 

3.  How  much  cement,  sand,  and  stone  will  be 
necessary  to  construct  the  water  tank  shown  in  Fig. 
104  if  its  capacity  is  15  barrels  of  water? 

4.  At  $5.00  per  cubic  yard,  estimate  the  cost  of 
the  foundation  for  the  machine  shed  shown  in  Fig. 
124.  Footing  30"  below  grade.  What  will  the  floor 
cost  at  9)4  per  sq.  ft.? 

5.  Silage  (compacted)  weighs  approximately  40 
pounds  per  cubic  ft.  How  many  tons  of  silage  will 
be  contained  in  a  silo  14'  X  38'  if  6'  is  allowed  for 
settlement  after  filling? 

6.  A  farmer  is  feeding  40  steers  the  ration  given 
on  page  113.  How  large  must  his  silo  be  to  allow 
200  days'  feeding,  supposing  that  the  ration  is  the 
same  for  the  whole  period? 

7.  At  SO^  per  cubic  yard,  what  will  be  the  cost 
of  excavating  for  the  house  shown  in  Fig.  134? 
Make  a  sketch  of  wall  section  showing  grade  line, 
and  basement  7'  in  the  clear. 

8.  The  dairy  barn  shown  in  Figs.  112  to  115  is  to 


CONSTRUCTION  DATA 


121 


be  painted  two  coats.  Allowing  1  gal.  to  300  sq.  ft. 
for  priming  coat  and  1  gal.  to  500  sq.  ft.  for  second 
coat,  how  much  will  the  paint  cost  at  $2.00  per 
gallon? 

9.  Make  a  cubic  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the  house 
shown  in  Fig.  134. 

10.  Make  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the  horse 


barn  shown  in  Fig.  116.     Use  approximate  methods 
to  check  your  detailed  estimate. 

11.  What  will  be  the  dimensions  of  a  storage  barn 
to  hold  120  tons  of  hay?  Make  allowance  for  one- 
half  of  space  above  plate. 

12.  What  is  the  weight  of  the  wrought  iron  bolster 
iron  shown  in  Fig.  168? 


O/ass 


Fig.  182. — Blue-print  frame. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


A  short  list  of  books  and  pamphlets  on 
aUied  subjects  is  here  included,  as  a  possible 
aid  to  those  wishing  to  investigate  further 
into  some  of  the  branches  referred  to  in  the 
present  work. 

It  is  not  to  be  regarded  at  all  as  a  complete 
list,  but  simply  as  a  representative  selection 
of  recent  publications. 

On  account  of  the  rapid  strides  in  scientific 
and  sanitary  research,  and  the  use  of  new 
or  improved  building  materials  and  methods 
of  construction,  a  large  portion  of  the  books 
and  other  material  now  in  print  may  be 
regarded  as  practically  obsolete. 

The  list  is  classified  into  books;  bulletins 
of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture; 
bulletins  of  State  Colleges  and  Agricultural 
Experiment  Stations;  and  books  or  pamph- 
lets issued  by  manufacturing  concerns. 

Government  and  state  bulletins  are  pub- 
lished with  some  frequency,  and  much 
information  may  be  gained  from  them.  A 
monthly  list  of  the  bulletins  published  by 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  may  be  had  on  applica- 
tion to  the  Editor  and  Chief,  Division  of 

Publications.     State   bulletins   may   be   se-     Child,   Georgie  Boynton. — The  Efficient 
cured  by  applying  to  the  Agricultural  Ex-  y  Kitchen. 


"Farm  buildings  of  practical,  sanitary  and  ar- 
tistic lines."     A  book  designed  for  large  es- 
tates  or   country   places,   rather   than   the 
average  farm. 
Ekblaw,  J.  K.  T. — Farm  Structures. 

347   pp.   ill.     $1.75.     MacMillan  &   Co., 
N.  Y.     1914. 

A  text  book  for  Agricultural  Engineering 
courses,  with  a  general  discussion  of  materials, 
construction  and  engineering  of  farm  struc- 
tures. 

■. — Farm  Buildings. 

354  pp.  637  ill.     $2.00.     Sanders  Publish- 
ing Co.,  Chicago.     1914. 

A  compilation  of  articles  appearing  in  the 
Breeder's  Gazette,  contributed  by  practical 
men  and  dealing  with  actual  structures. 
Radford,  W.  A. — Practical  Barn  Plans. 
172    pp.    ill.     $1.00.     Radford    Architec- 
tural Co.,  Chicago.     1909. 

"A  collection  of  common-sense  plans  of  barns, 
out-buildings,  and  stock  sheds." 

. — Poultry  Houses  and  Fixtures. 

95  pp.  ill.     $.50.     Reliable  Poultry  Jour- 
nal Pub.  Co.,  Quincy,  111.     1913. 

A  compilation  of  articles  appearing  in  the 
Reliable  Poultry  Journal.  "Poultry  house 
suggestions  for  every  breed,  every  climate, 
every  fancy." 


periment  Station  of  the  State. 

Manufacturers  are  compiling  valuable  and 
interesting  data  and  information  in  their 
catalogues  of  materials  or  appliances,  and 
while  intended  for  advertising  purposes, 
some  of  these  publications  are  well  worth 
securing  and  preserving. 

BOOKS. 

Hopkins,  Alfred. — Modern  Farm  Buildings. 
206  pp.  ill.  $2.00.  McBride  Nast  &  Co., 
N.  Y.     1913. 


242  pp.  ill.     $1.25.     McBride  Nast  &  Co. 
1914. 

A  discussion  of  the  planning  of  the  kitchen 
from  the  standpoint  of  economy  in  operation. 
. — The  Rochester  Ice  House. 


Board  of  Health,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

A  bulletin  describing  in  detail  the  construc- 
tion and  operation  of  the  ice  house  illustrated 
in  Fig.  127. 
Ellis,  A.  R. — Making  a  Garage. 

$.50.     McBride  Nast  &  Co.     1913. 

One  of  the  series  of  "House  and  Garden  Mak- 
ing" books. 


122 


SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


123 


White,  C.  E.,  Jr. — Successful  Houses  and 
How  to  Build  Them. 

$2.00.     MacMillan  Co.     1912. 

An  extensive  discussion  of  planning,  specifi- 
cations, fixtures  and  devices. 
— — — — : — Book  of  Little  Houses. 

107  pp.     $.50.     MacMillan  &  Co.     1914. 
Ives,  H.  C. — Surveying  Manual. 

296  pp.     $2.25.     Jno.  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.  Y. 
1914. 

A  short  treatise  on  surveying,  especially  de- 
signed for  a  brief  course,  or  for  home  study. 
^   Elliott,  C.  G. — Practical  Farm  Drainage. 
188  pp.     $1 .50.    Jno.  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.  Y. 
1908. 

The   essentials,    principles,    and   practice   of 
drainage.  . 
FoBTiER,   Samuel. — The  Use  of  Water  in 
Irrigation. 

265    pp.     $2.00.     McGraw-Hill,    N.    Y. 
1915. 

Methods  and  structures  pertaining  to  irriga- 
tion, principally  of  arid  lands. 
French,  Thos.  E. — A  Manual  of  Engineer- 
ing Drawing. 

289    pp.     $2.00.     McGraw-Hill,    N.    Y. 
1911. 

A  reference  book  on  the  different  branches  of 
technical  drawing. 

^  Handbooks. 

Valuable  "pocket  size"  reference  books  with 
engineering  data  and  information  are  pub- 
lished for  architects,  civil,  mechanical  and 
electrical  engineers.  The  student  who  ex- 
pects to  work  along  these  lines  will  find  such 
a  book  9,lmost  necessary. 

Bulletins  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricidture. 
Bulletin  No.  57. — Water  Supply,  Plumb- 
ing,    and    Sewage    Disposal    for    Country 
Homes. 

46  pp.  38  figs. 

Discussion  of  Farm  Sanitation. 
Farmers'     Bulletin     No.    574. — Poultry 
House  Construction. 
20  pp.  13  figs. 

Covers  average  conditions  met  in  this  field. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  589. — Homemade 
Silos. 

47  pp.  37  figs. 


Workable  explanation  of  concrete,  stave  and 

modified  Wisconsin  types  of  Silo. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  438. — Hog  Houses. 
29  pp.  21  figs. 

Tables  of  position  of  sun's  rays  at  different 

times  of  the  year. 

Valuable  for  the  design  of  sunlight  type  of 

swine  house. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  607. — The  Farm 
Kitchen  as  a  Workshop. 
20  pp.  6  figs. 

Of  interest  principally  to  farm  women. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  475. — Ice  Houses. 
20  pp.  11  figs. 

Brief  discussion  of  ice  houses  and  application. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  623. — Ice  Houses 
and  the  Use  of  Ice  on  the  Dairy  Farm. 
24  pp.  17  figs. 

The  use  of  ice  on  the  dairy  farm  for  keeping 
of  milk  and  cream  in  the  best  marketable 
condition  is  discussed.  Suggested  designs 
for  six  ice  houses. 

State   Experiment   Station   and   Agricultural 
College  Bulletins. 

Bulletin  No.  132. — Farm  Poultry  Houses. 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Iowa  State 
College,  Ames,  Iowa. 
26  pp.  7  figs.  8  pi. 
Bulletin  No.  152. — Movable  Hog  Houses. 
Iowa  State  College,  Ames,  Iowa. 

43  pp.  37  figs. 
Bulletin  No.  141. — Modern  Silo  Construc- 
tion, Iowa  State  College,  Ames,  Iowa. 
68  pp.  62  figs. 

These  three  bulletins  are  excellent  compre- 
hensive treatments,  in  each  case  with  working 
drawings  and  cost  based  on  actual  experience. 
Bulletin     No.     179. — Construction     and 
Equipment  of  Dairy  Barn,  Kentucky  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  Lexington,  Ky. 
82  pp.  50  figs. 

While  this  discussion  is  intended  primarily 

for  the  State  of  Kentucky,  it  is  wide  enough 

to  be  of  interest  to  dairymen  generally. 

Monthly  Bulletin  No.   8,   Vol.   XII. — 

' '  The  Missouri  Silo."     Missouri  State  Board 

of  Agriculture,  Columbia,  Mo. 

Well  adapted  to  southern  conditions. 


124 


AGRICULTURAL  DRAWING 


Bulletin    No.    110. — Georgia    Experiment 
Station,  Experiment,  Ga. 
26  pp.  9  figs. 

Able  discussion  of  types  of  silo  suitable  to 

region. 
Bulletin  No.  143.     Economy  of  the  Round 
Dairy  Barn.     Illinois  Agricultural   Experi- 
ment Station,  Urbana,  111. 
44  pp.  42  figs. 

Presents  arguments  for  round  barn  as  a  type. 
Bulletin     No.     274. — Building     Poultry 
Houses.     Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
44  pp.  66  figs. 

Covers  the  subject  in  a  thorough  manner. 

Trade  Publications. 

Lowden's  Barn  Plans.     Lowden  Mfg.  Co., 
Fairfield,  Iowa. 

The  James  Way.     (How  to  build  a  Dairy 
Barn.)    James  Mfg.  Co.,  Fort  Atkinson,  Wis. 
King,  F.  H. — Ventilation.     King  Ventilat- 
ing Co.,  Owatonna,  Minn. 
126  pp.  63  figs. 

A  standard  work  on  stable  ventilation, 
adapted  by  a  manufacturer  of  stable  venti- 
lators. 


The   Modern   Farmer.     Lehigh   Portland 
Cement  Co.,  Allentown,  Pa. 
64  pp.  ill. 

Small  Farm  Buildings  of  Concrete. 
Universal  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Chicago, 
111. 

158  pp.  136  figs. 

Concrete  in  the  Country.     Alpha  Port- 
land Cement  Co.,  Easton,  Pa. 
112  pp.  ill. 

Successful  Stucco  Houses.     Clinton  Wire 
Cloth  Co.,  Clinton,  Mass. 
94  pp.  ill. 

^Concrete  Silos.     Universal   Portland   Ce- 
ment Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

104  pp.  ill. 
^  Concrete  Construction,  about  the  Home 
AND  ON  THE  Farm.     Atlas  Portland  Cement 
Co.,  New  York. 

128  pp.  ill. 
The  Concrete  House  and  its  Construc- 
tion.    American  Association  Portland  Ce- 
ment Mfrs. 

$1.00. 


INDEX 


Adjustable  spacing  block,  106 
Agricultural  college  bulletins,  123 
Alphabet  of  lines,  10,  24 
Approximate  estimates,  118 
Architect,  service  of,  82 
Architect's  scale,  28 
Architectural  drawing,  5,  9 

lettering,  24 

symbols,  48 
Artist,  3 

Assembly  drawing,  26 
Auxiliary  views,  27 
Axes,  isometric,  100 

oblique,  103 

B 

Balloon  frame,  50 
Barn-yard,  covered,  68 
Bams,  cost  of,  118,  119 

dairy,  56 

general  purpose,  68 

horse,  64 
Basement,  86 

plan,  87 
Bath-room,  86 
Beams,  strength  of,  114 
Bed  rooms,  84 
Bench,  44,  106 
Bill  of  material,  24,  30 

for  dairy  barn,  63 

for  implement  shed,  73 
Bird  house,  108 
Blue  prints,  95 

printing,  120 
Bolster  stake  iron,  106 
Bolts,  31 

in  section,  27 

standard,  33 

to  draw,  32 
Book  rack,  108 
Books,  list  of,  122 
Boot  jack,  42 
Bow  pen,  17 
Braced  frame,  50 


Breaks,  conventional,  31 
Breeding  crate,  45 
Brick,  54 

bonding,  54,  55 

cork,  64 

symbols,  48 

weight  of,  113 
Bulletin  board,  44 

C 

Cabinet  drawing,  104 
Cattle  breeding  crate,  45 
Cautions,  25 
Cement,  115 

Certification,  of  a  survey,  91 
Chain,  Gunter's,  90 
Checking,  30 
Circle,  isometric,  102 

to  draw,  16 
Clevis,  39 

Colony  swine  house,  70 
Commercial  sizes,  50,  112 
Compass,  6 

lengthening  bar,  17 

use  of,  16 
Concrete,  53 

cost  of,  119 

fence  post,  43 

gate  post,  43 

hog  trough,  41 

proportions  for,  115 

specifications  for,  63 

symbols,  48 

watering  trough,  53 

weight  of,  113 
Cone,  to  develop,  34 
Connecticut  trap  nest,  2 
Contour  map,  4,  95,  98 

profile  from,  96 
Contours,  95 
Conventional  lines,  14 

symbols,  30,  31,  94 
Corn  crib,  74 

tester,  39 
Crosshatching,  26 
Cubic  estimating,  118 


125 


126 


INDEX 


Culture,  95 

symbols,  94 
Cylinder,  to  develop,  34 


D 


Dairy  barn,  cost  of,  119 
estimate  for,  64 
plans  for,  58,  59,  60,  61 
requirements  for,  56 
specifications  for,  62 

house,  78 

problem,  89 

score  card,  116 
Detail  drawings,  26 
Detailed  estimates,  119 
Developed  surfaces,  32 

problems,  46 
Dimensioning,  of  bolt,  32 

rules  for,  29 

structures,  49 
Dining  room,  84 
Dipping  vat,  69 
Ditches,  fall  of,  96 
Dividers,  6 

cautions,  25 

use  of,  17 
Doors,  112 

symbols,  48 
Drain,  tile,  113 
Drains,  grade  of,  96 
Drawing,  assembly,  26 

cabinet,  104 

detail,  26 

isometric,  2,  5,  100 

oblique,  5,  102 

orthographic,  5,  6,  7,  26 

perspective,  3 
Drawing  paper,  6 
Dwellings,  cost  of,  118 


E 


Elevations,  9,  49 
Engineer's  scale,  90 
Ensilage,  62,   78,  115 

weight  of,  120 
Estimate,  for  dairy  barn,  64,  119 
Estimating,  86,  118 

approximate,  118 

cubic,  118 

detailed,  119 
Extension  lines,  29 
Experiment  station  bulletins,  123 


Farm  house,  82 

plans  of,  83,   85,  87,  88 

implements,  space  required,  113 

level,  90 

map,  90,  91 

structures,  47 

survey,  91 
Fastenings,  31 
Faulty  lines,  20 
Feeding  stick,  18 
Feed  alleys,  61,  62,  64 
Fence  posts,  12 

concrete,  43 

proportions  for,  115 

wood  for,  114 
Fences,  79 
Field  book,  97 
Finish  mark,  30 
Fire-stopping,  52 
Flooring,  woods  for,  114 
Floors,  concrete  for,  115 
Fly  wheel,  43 

trap,  46 
Form,  for  concrete  trough,  41 
Foundation,  silo   79 

concrete  for,  115 
Framing,  50 

balloon  frame,  66,  68 

braced  frame,  50,  64 

details,  51 

pin  joints,  50,  68 
Freehand  sketching,  9 

G 

Galvanized  iron,  56,  112 
roofing,  weight  of,  113 

Gang  mold,  40 

Garage,  76,  77 

Gates,  44,  81 

General  purpose  bam,  68 
plans  for,  66,  67 

Glass,  112 

Good  form,  10 

Gradient,  96 

Grammar,  5 

Granaries,  75 

Grindstone,  45 

Gunter's  chain,  90 


Half-section,  27 
Hall,  stair,  84 


INDEX 


127 


Hay  rack,  42 

basket,  43 
Heating,  119 
Hog  cot,  69 

problem,  86 
Horse  barn,  64 

plan  for,  65 
House,  dairy,  78 

farm,  82 

ice,  75,  76 

implement,  73 

poultry,  71 

smoke,  78 

swine,  70 
Hurdles,  71,  81,  107 


Ice  boxes,  44 

houses,  76 

weight  of,  113 
Implement  sheds,  72,  73 
Implements,  space  required  for,  113 
Inking,  20,  25 

order  of,  22,  38 
Instruments,  civil  engineering,  90 

drawing  with,  10 

list  of,  6 

measuring,  38 
Insulated  walls,  76 
Interior  finish,  woods  for,  114 
Isometric,  circle,  102 

drawing,  2,  5,  100 

lines,  101 

problems,  104 


Joints,  framing,  51 
Joists,  113 


Kitchen,  82,  84 

step  ladder,  109 
score  card,  117 


K 


Lettering,  single  stroke  inclined,  23 
roman,  24 
upright,  22 
Level,  farm,  90 

frame,  107 
Lighting,  119 

symbols,  48 
Lines,  alphabet  of  10,  14 

bearing  of,  91 

dimension,  29 

faulty,  20 

grade  of,  96 

isometric,  101 

section,  26 

sketching,  9 

tangent,  17 

to  divide  by  trial,  17 
Living  room,  84 
Lumber,  sizes  of,  112 

symbols,  48 


M 


Machine  shed,  72,  73 
problem,  86 

Mangers,  cow,  62,  67 
horse   64 

Manure  pit,  79,  80 

Maps,  5,  90 

farm  office,  91 
landscape,  96,  97 
problems,  99 
quadrangle,  96 
topographic,  95 

Markers,  91 

Metal  roofing,  113 

Milk  stool,  40 

Mill  work,  112 

Miter  box,  3 

Monuments,  91 

Muffler,  43 


N 


Nests,  poultry,  2,  72 
Non-isometric  lines,  101 
Notes  on  drawings,  30 


O 


Landscape  maps,  96 

Language,  1 

Lengthening  bar,  17 

Lettering,  22 
on  maps,  96 
Reinhardt,  23 


Oblique  drawing,  5,  102 
Office,  84 

map,  91 
Order,  of  inking,  22,  38 

of  penciling,  38 


128 


INDEX 


Order  of  preparing  plans,  56 
Orthographic  projection,  5,  6,  7,  26 


Paddocks,  81 
Painting,  121 

cost  of,  119 
Patterns,  32 

to  make,  42 
Paving,  concrete  for,  115 
Pencil,  15 

sketching  with,  9 
Penciling,  order  of,  38 
Pens,  animal,  81 

lettering,  22 

ruling,  20 
Perspective  drawing,  3 
Pictorial  drawing,  3,  100 
Pipe,  32,  112 

fittings,  35 
Pit,  manure,  79,  80 
Plank  frame,  50 
Planning,  82 
Plans,  9,  47 
Plats,  91 
Plumbing,  120 
Porches,  84 

sleeping,  86 
Portland  cement,  53 
Posts,  wood  for,  114 
Poultry  houses,  71 
Prism,  to  develop,  35 
Problems,  elementary,  18,  20 

isometric,  104 

map,  99 

sketching,  11,  12,  13 

structural,  86,  89 

working  drawings,  38 
Profiles,  96 
Protractor,  90 
Pyramid,  to  develop,  35 


Quadrangle  sheet,  96 


Q 


R 


Rat-proofing,  52,  74,  76 
Ration  for  beef  feeders,  113 
Record,  farm,  92 
Reinhardt  letters,  23 
Rendering,  3 
Revolved  sections,  27 
Road  drag,  41 


Rochester  ice  house,  75,  76 
Roman  letters,  24 
Rope,  113 
Roofing,  materials,  56 

metal,  113 

ready,  113 

tile,  56 

weight  of,  113 
Roofs,  forms  of,  51 

diagram,  52 
Rules,  for  checking,  30 

for  dimensioning,  29 

for  oblique  drawing,  103 
Ruling  pen,  6 

use  of,  20 


s 


Sack-holder,  40 
Sash,  112 
Saw-horse,  107 
Scale,  6 

architect's,  28 

engineer's,  90 

of  a  map,  91 

use  of,  28 
Score  card,  dairy,  116 

kitchen,  117 
Screened  porch,  84 
Screws,  31,  34 
Sectional  views,  26 
Sections,  26,  49 

turned,  27 

isometric,  102 
Septic  tank,  79 
Sewage  disposal,  79,  120 
Sheave,  45 
Sheep,  barn,  71 

hurdle,  107 

rack,  39,  40 
Sheet  metal,  112 
Shingles,  56,  112 

suitable  woods  for,  113 

weight  of,  113 
Siding,  forms  of,  53 

selection  of  woods  for,  113 
Silo,  78 

cost  of,  119 

foundations,  79 

proportions  of  concrete  for,  115 

rack,  42 

tables,  115 
Single  stroke,  inclined  letters,  23 

roman  letters,  24 

vertical  letters,  22 


INDEX 


129 


Sizes,  lumber,  112 

pipe,  32 
*     stall,  57,  64 
Sketching,  9 

from  objects,  38 

pictorial,  104 

problems,  11,  12,  13 
Slate,  56,  113 

weight  of,  113 
Smoke  houses,  78 
Space  required,  for  storage,  113 

for  farm  implements,  1 13 
Specifications,  26 

for  dairy  bam,  62 
Spring  house,  78 
Stables,  cost  of,  119 
Stairs,  84 
Stalls,  size  of,  57,  64 

detail  of,  61,  67,  68 
Steers,  space  for,  89 
Stock  and  commercial  sizes,  112 
Stone,  55 

boat,  42 

rake,  110 
Storage,  space  required  for,  113 
Strength  of  timbers,  114 
Structures,  farm,  47 

problems,  86,  89 
Stucco,  55 

Sunshine  table  for  swine  houses,  115,  117 
Survey,  a  farm,  91 

certification,  91 
Swine  house,  68 

cost  of,  119 

sunshine  tables  for,  115,  117 
Symbols,  architectural,  48 

conventional,  30,  31 

lighting,  48 

materials  in  section,  30 

topographic,  94 


T-square,  6 

use  of,  14 
Table,  concrete  proportions,  115 

pipe  sizes,  32 

selection  of  woods,  113 

silo,  115 

strength  of  timbers,  114,  115 

sunshine,  115,  117 
Tangents,  17 
Tanks,  proportions  of  concrete  for,  115 

woods  for,  114 
Threads,  forms  of,  32 


Threads,  U.  S.  Standard,  31 
Tile,  drain,  113 

hollow,  56 

roofing,  56 
weight  of,  113 
Timber,  specifications  for,  63 

strength  of,  114 

weight  of,  113 
Tin,  112 
Titles,  24 

map,  91 

working  drawing,  30 
Tool  box,  39 

chest,  110 
Topographic  drawing,  5,  90,  95 

symbols,  94 
Trade  publications,  124 
Trap  nest,  2,  72 
Triangles,  6 

use  of,  14,  15 
Troughs,  concrete,  41 
Turned  section,  27 

u 

Unit  costs,  118,  119 

Units  of  measurement,  119 

U.  S.  Government,  bulletins,  122,  123 

quadrangle  sheets,  96 

standard  threads,  32 
Use  of  compass,  16 

dividers,  17 

scale,  28 

T-square  and  triangles,  14 


Vat,  dipping,  69 
Vegetation  symbols,  94 
Vehicles,  wood  for,  114 
Ventilation,  120 


W 


Walks,  concrete  for,  115 
Wash  room,  84 
Water  features,  94 

storage  tank,  89 

weight  of,  113 
Weight,  roofing,  113 
Weights  of  materials,  113 
Wheelbarrow  wheel,  108 
Windmill  brake  shoe,  20 
Windows,  112 

detail  of,  61 

symbols,  48 


130  INDEX 

Windows,  ventilating,  67  Work  bench,  44,  111 
Wire,  112  drawer,  105 

Wood,  construction,  50  Working  drawing,  3,  5 
selection  of,  113  classes  of,  26 

strength  of,  114  definition,  5,  26 

weight  of,  113  method  of  making,  38 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED   FOR   FAILURE  TO   RETURN 
THIS   BOOK  ON   THE   DATE   DUE.   THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY    AND    TO    $I.OO    ON    THE    SEVENTH     DAY 
OVERDUE. 

JV?AR   io   •■■•■ 

NOV  5  1941 

D.r,97  '^^^^^ 

.W^^^^ 

A^\y*  -^ 

0CT2  1  19.R.q  -  , 

27Aug58IV!F 

PCC.C  D  Lw 

MAY  4    1960 

LD  21-95m-7,'37 

^ 


VE  21779 


UNIVERSITY  OF  GAUFORNIA  LIBRARY 


H 


